Aderem, A. and Ulevitch, R.J. (2000) Toll-like receptors in the induction of the innate immune response. Nature , 406 , 782-787.

Aderem, A. and Underhill, D.M. (1999) Mechanisms of phagocytosis in macrophages. Annual Review of Immunology , 17 , 593-623.

Aggarwal, B.B. and Natarajan, K. (1996) Tumor necrosis factors: developments during the last decade. European Cytokine Network , 7 , 93-124.

Alexander, J., Satoskar, A.R. and Russell, D.G. (1999) Leishmania species: models of intracellular parasitism. Journal of Cell Science , 112 , 2993-3002.

Allione, A., Bernabei, P., Bosticardo, M., Ariotti, S., Forni, G. and Novelli, F. (1999) Nitric oxide suppresses human T lymphocyte proliferation through IFN-gamma-dependent and IFN-gamma-independent induction of apoptosis. Journal of Immunology , 163 , 4182-4191.

Arevalo, I., Ward, B., Miller, R., Meng, T.C., Najar, E., Alvarez, E., Matlashewski, G. and Llanos-Cuentas, A. (2001) Successful treatment of drug-resistant cutaneous leishmaniasis in humans by use of imiquimod, an immunomodulator. Clinical Infectious Diseases , 33 , 1847-1851.

Arregui, C.O., Balsamo, J. and Lilien, J. (1998) Impaired integrin-mediated adhesion and signaling in fibroblasts expressing a dominant-negative mutant PTP1B. Journal of Cellular Biology , 143 , 861-873.

Auger, M.J. and Ross, J.A. (1992) The biology of the macrophage. In Lewis, C.E. and McGee, J.O.D. (eds.), The Macrophage: the Natural Immune System . Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 3-74.

Awasthi, A., Mathur, R., Khan, A., Joshi, B.N., Jain, N., Sawant, S., Boppana, R., Mitra, D. and Saha, B. (2003) CD40 signaling is impaired in L. major-infected macrophages and is rescued by a p38MAPK activator establishing a host-protective memory T cell response. The Journal of Experimental Medicine , 197 , 1037-1043.

Bagrodia, S., Derijard, B., Davis, R.J. and Cerione, R.A. (1995) Cdc42 and PAK-mediated signaling leads to Jun kinase and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase activation. The Journal of Biological Chemistry , 270 , 27995-27998.

Baird, A.M., Lucas, J.A. and Berg, L.J. (2000) A profound deficiency in thymic progenitor cells in mice lacking Jak3. Journal of Immunology , 165 , 3680-3688.

Baldwin, A.S. (1996) The NF-kappa B and I kappa B proteins: new discoveries and insights. Annual Review of Immunology , 14 , 649-683.

Banville, D., Stocco, R. and Shen, S.H. (1995) Human protein tyrosine phosphatase 1C (PTPN6) gene structure: Alternate promoter usage and exon skipping generate multiple transcripts. Genomics , 27 , 165-173.

Barr, S.D. and Gedamu, L. (2003) Role of peroxidoxins in Leishmania chagasi survival. Evidence of an enzymatic defense against nitrosative stress. The Journal of Biological Chemistry , 278 , 10816-10823.

Begitt, A., Meyer, T., van Rossum, M. and Vinkemeier, U. (2000) Nucleocytoplasmic translocation of Stat1 is regulated by a leucine-rich export signal in the coiled-coil domain. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America , 97 , 10418-10423.

Beil, W.J., Meinardus-Hager, G., Neugebauer, D.C. and Sorg, C. (1992) Differences in the onset of the inflammatory response to cutaneous leishmaniasis in resistant and susceptible mice. Journal of Leukocyte Biology , 52 , 135-142.

Belkaid, Y., Butcher, B. and Sacks, D.L. (1998a) Analysis of cytokine production by inflammatory mouse macrophages at the single-cell level: selective impairment of IL-12 induction in Leishmania -infected cells. European Journal of Immunology , 28 , 1389-1400.

Belkaid, Y., Kamhawi, S., Modi, G., Valenzuela, J., Noben-Trauth, N., Rowton, E., Ribeiro, J. and Sacks, D.L. (1998b) Development of a natural model of cutaneous leishmaniasis: powerful effects of vector saliva and saliva preexposure on the long-term outcome of Leishmania major infection in the mouse ear dermis. The Journal of Experimental Medicine , 188 , 1941-1953.

Belkaid, Y., Mendez, S., Lira, R., Kadambi, N., Milon, G. and Sacks, D. (2000) A natural model of Leishmania major infection reveals a prolonged "silent" phase of parasite amplification in the skin before the onset of lesion formation and immunity. Journal of Immunology , 165 , 969-977.

Belley, A. and Chadee, K. (1995) Eicosanoid production by parasites: From pathogenesis to immunomodulation? Parasitology Today , 11 , 327-334.

Bendtzen, K. (1988) Interleukin 1, interleukin 6 and tumor necrosis factor in infection, inflammation and immunity. Immunology Letters , 19 , 183-191.

Benkhart, E.M., Siedlar, M., Wedel, A., Werner, T. and Ziegler-Heitbrock, H.W. (2000) Role of Stat3 in lipopolysaccharide-induced IL-10 gene expression. Journal of Immunology , 165 , 1612-1617.

Berger, S.A., Mak, W.T. and Paige, J.C. (1994) Leukocyte common antigen (CD45) is required for immunoglobulin E-mediated degranulation of mast cells. Journal of Experimental Medicine , 180 , 471-476.

Bertholet, S., Dickensheets, H.L., Sheikh, F., Gam, A.A., Donnelly, R.P. and Kenney, R.T. (2003) Leishmania donovani-induced expression of suppressor of cytokine signaling 3 in human macrophages: a novel mechanism for intracellular parasite suppression of activation. Infection and Immunity , 71 , 2095-2101.

Bhat, N.R., Zhang, P., Lee, J.C. and Hogan, E.L. (1998) Extracellular signal-regulated kinase and p38 subgroups of mitogen-activated protein kinases regulate inducible nitric oxide synthase and tumor necrosis factor-α gene expression in endotoxin-stimulated primary glial cultures. Journal of Neuroscience , 18 , 1633-1641.

Bhattacharyya, S., Ghosh, S., Jhonson, P.L., Bhattacharya, S.K. and Majumdar, S. (2001a) Immunomodulatory role of interleukin-10 in visceral leishmaniasis: defective activation of protein kinase C-mediated signal transduction events. Infection and Immunity , 69 , 1499-1507.

Bhattacharyya, S., Ghosh, S., Sen, P., Roy, S. and Majumdar, S. (2001b) Selective impairment of protein kinase C isotypes in murine macrophage by Leishmania donovani. Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry , 216 , 47-57.

Blackwell, J.M., Ezekowitz, R.A., Roberts, M.B., Channon, J.Y., Sim, R.B. and Gordon, S. (1985) Macrophage complement and lectin-like receptors bind Leishmania in the absence of serum. The Journal of Experimental Medicine , 162 , 324-331.

Blanchette, J., Jaramillo, M. and Olivier, M. (2003) Signalling events involved in interferon-gamma-inducible macrophage nitric oxide generation. Immunology , 108 , 513-522.

Blanchette, J., Racette, N., Siminovitch, K.A., Faure, R. and Olivier, M. (1999) Leishmania -induced increases in activation of macrophage SHP-1 phosphatase are associated with impaired IFNγ-triggered JAK2 activation. European Journal of Immunology , 29 , 3737-3744.

Blank, C., Bogdan, C., Bauer, C., Erb, K. and Moll, H. (1996) Murine epidermal Langerhans cells do not express inducible nitric oxide synthase. European Journal of Immunology , 26 , 792-796.

Blank, C., Fuchs, H., Rappersberger, K., Rollinghoff, M. and Moll, H. (1993) Parasitism of epidermal Langerhans cells in experimental cutaneous leishmaniasis with Leishmania major . The Journal of Infectious Diseases , 167 , 418-425.

Blasioli, J., Paust, S. and Thomas, M.L. (1999) Definition of the sites of interaction between the protein tyrosine phosphatase SHP-1 and CD22. Journal of Biological Chemistry , 274 , 2303-2307.

Bochtler, M., Ditzel, M., Groll, M., Hartmann, C. and Huber, R. (1999) The proteasome. Annual Review in Biophysical and Biomolecular Structure , 28 , 295–317.

Bodman Smith, K.B., Mbuchi, M., Culley, F.J., Bates, P.A. and Raynes, J.G. (2002) C-reactive protein-mediated phagocytosis of Leishmania donovani promastigotes does not alter parasite survival or macrophage responses. Parasite Immunology , 24 , 447-454.

Boelaert, M., El Safi, S., Mousa, H., Mbati, J., Gurubacharya, V.L., Shrestha, J., Jacquet, D., De Muynck, A., Le Ray, D. and Van der Stuyft, P. (1999a) Multi-centre evaluation of repeatability and reproducibility of the direct agglutination test for visceral leishmaniasis. Tropical Medicine and International Health , 4 , 31–37.

Boelaert, M., Lynen, L., Desjeux, P. and Van der Stuyft, P. (1999b) Cost-effectiveness of competing diagnostic-therapeutic

strategies for visceral leishmaniasis. Bulletin of the World Health Organization , 77 , 667–674.

Bogdan, C. (2001a) Nitric oxide and the immune response. Nature Immunology , 2 , 907-916.

Bogdan, C. (2001b) Nitric oxide and the regulation of gene expression. Trends in Cell Biology , 11 , 66-75.

Bogdan, C., Donhauser, N., Doring, R., Rollinghoff, M., Diefenbach, A. and Rittig, M.G. (2000a) Fibroblasts as host cells in latent leishmaniosis. Journal of Experimental Medicine , 191 , 2121-2130.

Bogdan, C. and Röllinghoff, M. (1998) The immune response to Leishmania : mechanisms of parasite control and evasion. International Journal for Parasitology , 28 , 121-134.

Bogdan, C., Rollinghoff, M. and Diefenbach, A. (2000b) Reactive oxygen and reactive nitrogen intermediates in innate and specific immunity. Current Opinion in Immunology , 12 , 64-76.

Bone, H., Dechert, U., Jirik, F., Schrader, J.W. and Welham, M.J. (1997) SHP1 and SHP2 protein-tyrosine phosphatases associate with βc after interleukin-3-induced receptor tyrosine phosphorylation. Identification of potential binding sites and substrates. Journal of Biological Chemistry , 272 , 14470-14476.

Bonnet, M.C., Weil, R., Dam, E., Hovanessian, A.G. and Meurs, E.F. (2000) PKR stimulates NF-kappaB irrespective of its kinase function by interacting with the IkappaB kinase complex. Molecular and Cellular Biology , 20 , 4532-4542.

Bora, D. (1999) Epidemiology of visceral leishmaniasis in India. National Medical Journal of India , 12 , 62–68.

Borges, L. and Cosman, D. (2000) LIRs/ILTs/MIRs, inhibitory and stimulatory Ig-superfamily receptors expressed in myeloid and lymphoid cells. Cytokine & Growth Factor Reviews , 11 , 209-217.

Bosque, F., Belkaid, Y., Briend, E., Hevin, B., Lebastard, M., Soussi, N. and Milon, G. (1997) The biology of macrophages. Pathologie Biologie , 45 , 103-109.

Bouchard, P., Zhao, Z., Banville, D., Dumas, F., Fischer, E.H. and Shen, S.H. (1994) Phosphorylation and identification of a major tyrosine phosphorylation site in protein tyrosine phosphatase 1C. Journal of Biological Chemistry , 269 , 19585-19589.

Brenier-Pinchart, M.P., Pelloux, H., Derouich-Guergour, D. and Ambroise-Thomas, P. (2001) Chemokines in host-protozoan-parasite interactions. TRENDS in Parasitology , 17 , 292-296.

Briscoe, J., Rogers, N.C., Witthuhn, B.A., Watling, D., Horn, D.L., Harpur, A.G., Wilks, A.F., Stark, G.R., Ihle, J.N. and Kerr, I.M. (1996) Kinase-negative mutants of JAK1 can sustain interferon-gamma-inducible gene expression but not an antiviral state. EMBO Journal , 15 , 799-809.

Brittingham, A., Chen, G., McGwire, B.S., Chang, K.P. and Mosser, D.M. (1999) Interaction of Leishmania gp63 with cellular receptors for fibronectin. Infection and Immunity , 67 , 4477-4484.

Brittingham, A., Morrison, C.J., McMaster, W.R., McGwire, B.S., Chang, K.P. and Mosser, D.M. (1995) Role of the Leishmania surface protease gp63 in complement fixation, cell adhesion, and resistance to complement-mediated lysis. Journal of Immunology , 155 , 3102-3111.

Brockdorff, J., Williams, S., Couture, C. and Mustelin, T. (1999) Dephosphorylation of ZAP-70 and inhibition of T cell activation by activated SHP1. European Journal of Immunology , 29 , 2539-2550.

Brockman, J.A., Scherer, D.C., McKinsey, T.A., Hall, S.M., Qi, X., Lee, W.Y. and Ballard, D.W. (1995) Coupling of a signal response domain in I kappa B alpha to multiple pathways for NF-kappa B activation. Molecular and Cellular Biology , 15 , 2809-2818.

Brown, A.M., Linhoff, M.W., Stein, B., Wright, K.L., Baldwin, A.S., Basta, P.V. and Ting, J.P. (1994) Function of NF-kappa B/Rel binding sites in the major histocompatibility complex class II invariant chain promoter is dependent on cell-specific binding of different NF-kappa B/Rel subunits. Molecular and Cellular Biology , 14 , 2926-2935.

Brown, D.G. and Gordon, S. (2002) Phagocytes and anti-infective immunity. In Kaufmann, S.H.E., Sher, A. and Ahmed, R. (eds.), Immunology of Infectious Diseases . ASM Press, Washington, D.C., pp. 79-91.

Brown, E.J. (1991) Complement receptors and phagocytosis. Current Opinion in Immunology , 3 , 76-82.

Brown, K., Gerstberger, S., Carlson, L., Franzoso, G. and Siebenlist, U. (1995) Control of I kappa B-alpha proteolysis by site-specific, signal-induced phosphorylation. Science , 267 , 1485-1488.

Brumell, J.H., Chan, C.K., Butler, J., Borregaard, N., Siminovitch, K.A., Grinstein, S. and Downey, G.P. (1997) Regulation of Src homology 2-containing tyrosine phosphatase 1 during activation of human neutrophils. Role of protein kinase C. Journal of Biological Chemistry , 272 , 875-882.

Brunda, M.J. (1994) Interleukin-12. Journal of Leukocyte Biology , 55 , 280-288.

Buates, S. and Matlashewski, G. (2001) General Suppression of Macrophage Gene Expression During Leishmania donovani Infection. Journal of Immunology , 166 , 3416-3422.

Buchmüller-Rouiller, Y. and Mauël, J. (1987) Impairment of the oxidative metabolism of mouse peritoneal macrophages by intracellular Leishmania spp. Infection and Immunity , 55 , 587-593.

Burshtyn, D.N., Scharenberg, A.M., Wagtmann, N., Rajagopalan, S., Berrada, K., Yi, T., Kinet, J.P. and Long, E.O. (1996) Recruitment of tyrosine phosphatase HCP by the killer cell inhibitor receptor. Immunity , 4 , 77-85.

Burshtyn, D.N., Yang, W., Yi, T. and Long, E.O. (1997) A novel phosphotyrosine motif with a critical amino acid at position -2 for the SH2 domain-mediated activation of the tyrosine phosphatase SHP-1. Journal of Biological Chemistry , 272 , 13066-13072.

Byth, K.F., Conroy, L.A., Howlett, S., Smith, A.J., May, J., Alexander, D.R. and Holmes, N. (1996) CD45-null transgenic mice reveal a positive regulatory role for CD45 in early thymocyte development, in the selection of CD4+ CD8+ thymocytes, and B cell maturation. Journal of Experimental Medicine , 183 , 1707-1718.

Caivano, M. (1998) Role of MAP kinase cascades in inducing arginine transporters and nitric oxide synthetase in RAW264 macrophages. FEBS Letters , 429 , 249-253.

Callus, B.A. and Mathey-Prevot, B. (1998) Interleukin-3-induced activation of the JAK/STAT pathway is prolonged by proteasome inhibitors. Blood , 91 , 3182-3192.

Campbell, K.A., Ovendale, P.J., Kennedy, M.K., Fanslow, W.C., Reed, S.G. and Maliszewski, C.R. (1996) CD40 ligand is required for protective cell-mediated immunity to Leishmania major. Immunity , 4 , 283-289.

Cantley, L.C. and Neel, B.G. (1999) New insights into tumor suppression: PTEN suppresses tumor formation by restraining the phosphoinositide 3-kinase/AKT pathway. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science of the United States of America , 96 , 4240–4245.

Caroll, M.C. (1998) The role of complement and complement receptors in induction and regulation of immunity. Annual Review of Immunology , 16 , 545-568.

Carrera, L., Gazzinelli, R.T., Badolato, R., Hieny, S., Muller, W., Kuhn, R. and Sacks, D.L. (1996) Leishmania promastigotes selectively inhibit interleukin 12 induction in bone marrow-derived macrophages from susceptible and resistant mice. Journal of Experimental Medicine , 183 , 515-526.

Cascio, A., Calattini, S. and Colomba, C. (2002) Polymerase chain reaction in the diagnosis and prognosis of Mediterranean visceral leishmaniasis in

immunocompetent children. Pediatrics , 109 , E27.

Cavalier-Smith, T. (1993) The kingdom Protozoa and its 18 phyla. Microbiology reviews , 57 , 953-994.

Chakravortty, D., Kato, Y., Sugiyama, T., Koide, N., Mu, M.M., Yoshida, T. and Yokochi, T. (2001) The inhibitory action of sodium arsenite on lipopolysaccharide-induced nitric oxide production in RAW 267.4 macrophage cells: a role of Raf-1 in lipopolysaccharide signaling. Journal of Immunology , 166 , 2011-2017.

Chan, E.D. and Riches, D.W.H. (2001) IFNγ + LPS induction of iNOS is modulated by ERK, JNK/SAPK, and p38mapk in a mouse macrophage cell line. American Journal of Physiology and Cell Physiology , 280 , C441-C450.

Chan, E.D., Winston, B.W., Uh, S.T., Wynes, M.W., Rose, D.M. and Riches, D.W.H. (1999) Evaluation of the role of mitogen-activated protein kinases in the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase by IFN-γ and TNF-α in mouse macrophages. Journal of Immunology , 162 , 415-422.

Chan, J., Fujiwara, T., Brennan, P., McNeil, M., Turco, S.J., Sibille, J.C., Snapper, M., Aisen, P. and Bloom, B.R. (1989) Microbial glycolipids: possible virulence factors that scavenge oxygen radicals. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America , 86 , 2453-2457.

Chang, L. and Karin, M. (2001) Mammalian MAP kinase signalling cascades. Nature , 410 , 37-40.

Chen, H.E., Chang, S., Trub, T. and Neel, B.G. (1996) Regulation of colony-stimulating factor 1 receptor signaling by the SH2 domain-containing tyrosine phosphatase SHPTP1. Molecular and Cellular Biology , 16 , 3685-3697.

Chen, M., Cheng, A., Candotti, F., Zhou, Y.J., Hymel, A., Fasth, A., Notarangelo, L.D. and O'Shea, J.J. (2000) Complex effects of naturally occurring mutations in the JAK3 pseudokinase domaine: evidence for interactions between the kinase and pseudokinase domains. Molecular and Cellular Biology , 20 , 947-956.

Chen, Z., Hagler, J., Palombella, V.J., Melandri, F., Scherer, D., Ballard, D. and Maniatis, T. (1995) Signal-induced site-specific phosphorylation targets I kappa B alpha to the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway. Genes & Development , 9 , 1586-1597.

Cheng, A., Bal, G.S., Kennedy, B.P. and Tremblay, M.L. (2001) Attenuation of adhesion-dependent signaling and cell spreading in transformed fibroblasts lacking protein tyrosine phosphatase-1B. Journal of Biological Chemistry , 276 , 25848-25855.

Cheng, A., Dubé, N., Feng, G. and Tremblay, M.L. (2002) Coordinated action of protein tyrosine phosphatases in insulin signal transduction. European Journal of Biochemistry , 269 .

Cherayil, B.J., McCormick, B.A. and Bosley, J. (2000) Salmonella enterica serovar typhimurium-dependent regulation of inducible nitric oxide synthase expression in macrophages by invasins SipB, SipC, and SipD and effector SopE2. Infection and Immunity , 68 , 5567-5574.

Chiang, G. and Sefton, B. (2001) Specific dephosphorylation of the Lck tyrosine protein kinase at Tyr-394 by the SHP-1 protein-tyrosine phosphatase. Journal of Biological Chemistry , 276 , 23173-23178.

Chiang, S.C., Ali, V., Huang, A.L., Chu, K.Y. and Lee, S.T. (2001) Molecular, cellular and functional characterizations of a novel ICAM-like molecule of the immunoglobulin superfamily from Leishmania mexicana amazonensis. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology , 112 , 263-275.

Chiang, S.C., Chang, S.C. and Lee, S.T. (2002) ICAM-L gene is conserved only in Leishmania species in the family of kinetoplastida. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology , 124 , 47-50.

Chu, W.M., Ostertag, D., Li, Z.W., Chang, L., Chen, Y., Hu, Y., Williams, B., Perrault, J. and Karin, M. (1999) JNK2 and IKKbeta are required for activating the innate response to viral infection. Immunity , 11 , 721-731.

Chung, C.D., Liao, J., Liu, B., Rao, X., Jay, P., Berta, P. and Shuai, K. (1997) Specific inhibition of Stat3 signal transduction by PIAS3. Science , 278 , 1803-1805.

Clark, E.A., Shultz, L.D. and Pollack, S.B. (1981) Mutations in mice that influence natural killer (NK) cell activity. Immunogenetics , 12 , 601-613.

Clark, R.A. (1999) Activation of the neutrophil respiratory burst oxidase. The Journal of Infectious Diseases , 179 Suppl 2 , S309-S317.

Connelly, L., Palacios-Callender, M., Ameixa, C., Moncada, S. and Hobbs, A.J. (2001) Biphasic regulation of NF-kappa B activity underlies the pro- and anti-inflammatory actions of nitric oxide. Journal of Immunology , 166 , 3873-3881.

Courret, N., Prina, E., Mougneau, E., Saraiva, E.M., Sacks, D.L., Glaichenhaus, N. and Antoine, J.C. (1999) Presentation of the Leishmania antigen LACK by infected macrophages is dependent upon the virulence of the pagocytosed parasites. European Journal of Immunology , 29 , 762-773.

Craggs, G. and Kellie, S. (2001) A functional nuclear localization sequence in the C-terminal domain of SHP-1. Journal of Biological Chemistry , 276 , 23719-23725.

Cresswell, P. (1994) Assembly, transport, and function of MHC class II molecules. Annual Review of Immunology , 12 , 259-293.

Cuevas, B., Lu, Y., Watt, S., Kumar, R., Zhang, J., Siminovitch, K.A. and Mills, G.B. (1999) SHP-1 regulates lck-induced phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase phosphorylation and activty. Journal of Biological Chemistry , 274 , 27583-27589.

Culley, F.J., Harris, R.A., Kaye, P.M., McAdam, K.P. and Raynes, J.G. (1996) C-reactive protein binds to a novel ligand on Leishmania donovani and increases uptake into human macrophages. Journal of Immunology , 156 , 4691-4696.

Cunningham, A.C. (2002) Parasitic adaptive mechanisms in infection by Leishmania . Experimental and Molecular Pathology , 72 , 132-141.

Daigle, I., Yousefi, S., Colonna, M., Green, D.R. and Simon, H.U. (2002) Death receptors bind SHP-1 and block cytokine-induced anti-apoptotic signaling in neutrophils. Nature Medicine , 8 , 61-67.

Darnell, J.E.J., Kerr, I.M. and Stark, G.R. (1994) Jak-STAT pathways and transcriptional activation in response to IFNs and other extracellular signaling proteins. Science , 264 , 1415-1421.

Das, S., Saha, A.K., Remaley, A.T., Glew, R.H., Dowling, J.N., Kajiyoshi, M. and Gottlieb, M. (1986) Hydrolysis of phosphoproteins and inositol phosphates by cell surface phosphatase of Leishmania donovani. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology , 20 , 143-153.

David, M., Chen, H.E., Goelz, S., Larner, A.C. and Neel, B.G. (1995) Differential regulation of the alpha/beta interferon-stimulated Jak/Stat pathway by the SH2 domain-containing tyrosine phosphatase SHPTP1. Molecular and Cellular Biology , 15 , 7050-7058.

Davidson, W.F., Morse, H.C., Sharrow, S.O. and Chused, T.M. (1979) Phenotypic and functional effects of the motheaten gene on murine B and T lymphocytes. Journal of Immunology , 122 , 884-891.

Davies, C.R., Llanos-Cuentas, E.A., Campos, P., Monge, J., Leon, E. and Canales, J. (2000) Spraying houses in the Peruvian Andes with lambda-cyhalothrin protects residents against cutaneous leishmaniasis. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene , 94 , 631-636.

Davies, P., Bailey, P.J., Goldenberg, M.M. and Ford-Hutchinson, A.W. (1984) The role of arachidonic acid oxygenation products in pain and inflammation. Annual Review of Immunology , 2 , 335-357.

Davis, R.J. (2000) Signal transduction by the JNK group of MAP kinases. Cell , 103 , 239-252.

De Almeida, M.C., Cardoso, S.A. and Barral-Netto, M. (2003) Leishmania (Leishmania) chagasi infection alters the expression of cell adhesion and costimulatory molecules on human monocyte and macrophage. International Journal of Parasitology , 33 , 153-162.

de Freitas Balanco, J.M., Moreira, M.E., Bonomo, A., Bozza, P.T., Amarante-Mendes, G., Pirmez, C. and Barcinski, M.A. (2001) Apoptotic mimicry by an obligate intracellular parasite downregulates macrophage microbicidal activity. Current Biology , 11 , 1870-1873.

De Sepulveda, P., Okkenhaug, K., Rose, J.L., Hawley, R.G., Dubreuil, P. and Rottapel, R. (1999) Socs1 binds to multiple signalling proteins and suppresses steel factor-dependent proliferation. The Embo Journal , 18 , 904-915.

de Souza Lao, S., Lang, T., Prina, E., Hellio, R. and Antoine, J.C. (1995) Intracellular Leishmania amazonensis amastigotes internalize and degrade MHC class II molecules of their host cells. Journal of Cell Science , 108 , 3219-3231.

Delhase, M., Hayakawa, M., Chen, Y. and Karin, M. (1999) Positive and negative regulation of IkappaB kinase activity through IKKbeta subunit phosphorylation. Science , 284 , 309-313.

Descoteaux, A. and Matlashewski, G. (1989) c-fos and tumor necrosis factor gene expression in Leishmania donovani-infected macrophages. Molecular and Cellular Biology , 9 , 5223-5227.

Descoteaux, A., Matlashewski, G. and Turco, S.J. (1992) Inhibition of macrophage protein kinase C-mediated protein phosphorylation by Leishmania donovani lipophosphoglycan. Journal of Immunology , 149 , 3008-3015.

Descoteaux, A. and Turco, S.J. (1999) Gycoconjugates in Leishmania infectivity. Biochemica et Biophysica Acta , 1455 , 341-352.

Descoteaux, A. and Turco, S.J. (2002) Functional aspects of the Leishmania donovani lipophosphoglycan during macrophage infection. Microbes and Infection , 4 , 975-981.

Desjardins, M. and Descoteaux, A. (1997) Inhibition of phagolysosomal biogenesis by the Leishmania lipophosphoglycan. Journal of Experimental Medicine , 185 , 2061-2068.

Desjardins, M., Huber, L.A., Parton, R.G. and Griffiths, G. (1994) Biogenesis of phagolysosomes proceeds through a sequential series of interactions with the endocytic apparatus. The Journal of Cell Biology , 124 , 677-688.

Devin, A., Cook, A., Lin, Y., Rodriguez, Y., Kelliher, M. and Liu, Z. (2000) The distinct roles of TRAF2 and RIP in IKK activation by TNF-R1: TRAF2 recruits IKK to TNF-R1 while RIP mediates IKK activation. Immunity , 12 , 419-429.

Diaz-Guerra, M.J.M., Castrillo, A., Martin-Sanz, P. and Bosca, L. (1999) Negative regulation by protein tyrosine phosphatase of IFN-γ dependent expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase. Journal of Immunology , 162 , 6776-6783.

Dickie, M.M., Southard, J.L. and Farnsworth, R.T. (1969) Two unusual dominant mutations in the mouse. The Journal of Heredity , 60 , 84-86.

DiDonato, J.A., Hayakawa, M., Rothwarf, D.M., Zandi, E. and Karin, M. (1997) A cytokine-responsive IkappaB kinase that activates the transcription factor NF-kappaB. Nature , 388 , 548-554.

Diefenbach, A., Schindler, H., Donhauser, N., Lorenz, E., Laskay, T., MacMicking, J., Röllinghoff, M., Gresser, I. and Bogdan, C. (1998) Type 1 interferon (IFNalpha/beta) and type 2 nitric oxide synthase regulate the innate immune response to a protozoan parasite. Immunity , 8 , 77-87.

Dong, C., Davis, R.J. and Flavell, R.A. (2002) MAP kinases in the immune response. Annual Review of Immunology , 20 , 55-72.

Donnelly, R.P., Dickensheets, H. and Finbloom, D.S. (1999) The interleukin-10 signal transduction pathway and regulation of gene expression in mononuclear phagocytes. Journal of Interferon and Cytokine Research , 19 , 563-573.

Dorfman, K., Carrasco, D., Gruda, M., Ryan, C., Lira, S.A. and Bravo, R. (1996) Disruption of the erp/mkp-1 gene does not affect mouse development: normal MAP kinase activity in ERP/MKP-1-deficient fibroblasts. Oncogene , 13 , 925-931.

Draetta, G. and Eckstein, J. (1997) Cdc25 protein phosphatases in cell proliferation. Biochemica and Biophysica Acta , 1332 , 53-63.

Dumitru, C.D., Ceci, J.D., Tsatsanis, C., Kontoyiannis, D., Stamatakis, K., Lin, J.H., Patriotis, C., Jenkins, N.A., Copeland, N.G., Kollias, G. and Tsichlis, P.N. (2000) TNF-alpha induction by LPS is regulated posttranscriptionally via a Tpl2/ERK-dependent pathway. Cell , 103 , 1071-1083.

Durum, S.K., Schmidt, J.A. and Oppenheim, J.J. (1985) Interleukin 1: an immunological perspective. Annual Review of Immunology , 3 , 263-287.

Dustin, L.B., Plas, D.R., Wong, J., Hu, Y.T., Soto, C., Chan, A.C. and Thomas, M.L. (1999) Expression of dominant-negative src-homology domain 2-containing protein tyrosine phosphatase-1 results in increased Syk tyrosine kinase activity and B cell activation. Journal of Immunology , 162 , 2717-2724.

Eilam, Y., El On, J. and Spira, D.T. (1985) Leishmania major: excreted factor, calcium ions, and the survival of amastigotes. Experimental Parasitology , 59 , 161-168.

Elnaiem, D.A., Elnahas, A.M. and Aboud, M.A. (1999) Protective efficacy of lambdacyhalothrin-impregnated bednets against Phlebotomus orientalis, the vector of visceral leishmaniasis in Sudan. Medical and Veterinarian Entomology , 13 , 310–314.

Emanuelli, B., Peraldi, P., Filloux, C., Sawka-Verhelle, D., Hilton, D. and Van Obberghen, E. (2000) SOCS-3 is an insulin-induced negative regulator of insulin signaling. The Journal of Biological Chemistry , 275 , 15985-15991.

Endo, T.A., Masuhara, M., Yokouchi, M., Suzuki, R., Sakamoto, H., Mitsui, K., Matsumoto, A., Tanimura, S., Ohtsubo, M., Misawa, H., Miyazaki, T., Leonor, N., Taniguchi, T., Fujita, T., Kanakura, Y., Komiya, S. and Yoshimura, A. (1997) A new protein containing an SH2 domain that inhibits JAK kinases. Nature , 387 , 921-924.

Engwerda, C.R. and Kaye, P.M. (2000) Organ-specific immune responses associated with infectious disease. Immunology Today , 21 , 73-78.

Farrell, J.P. and Kirkpatrick, C.E. (1987) Experimental cutaneous leishmaniasis. II. A possible role for prostaglandins in exacerbation of disease in Leishmania major-infected BALB/c mice. Journal of Immunology , 138 , 902-907.

Faure, V., Hecquet, C., Courtois, Y. and Goureau, O. (1999) Role of interferon regulatory factor-1 and mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways in the induction of nitric oxide synthase-2 in retinal pigmented epithelial cells. Journal of Biological Chemistry , 274 , 4794-4800.

Flohé, S., Lang, T. and Moll, H. (1997) Synthesis, stability, and subcellular distribution of major histocompatibility complex class II molecules in Langerhans cells infected with Leishmania major . Infection and Immunity , 65 , 3444-3450.

Frangioni, J.V., Beahm, P.H., Shifrin, V., Jost, C.A. and Neel, B.G. (1992) The nontransmembrane tyrosine phosphatase PTP-1B localizes to the endoplasmic reticulum via its 35 amino acid C-terminal sequence. Cell , 68 , 545-560.

Frankenburg, S., Leibovici, V., Mansbach, N., Turco, S.J. and Rosen, G. (1990) Effect of glycolipids of Leishmania parasites on human monocyte activity. Inhibition by Lipophosphoglycan. Journal of Immunology , 145 , 4284-4289.

Frearson, J.A. and Alexander, D.R. (1997) The role of phosphotyrosine phosphatases in haematopoietic cell signal transduction. Bioessays , 19 , 417-427.

Frucht, D.M., Fukao, T., Bogdan, C., Schindler, H., O'Shea, J.J. and Koyasu, S. (2001) IFN-gamma production by antigen-presenting cells: mechanisms emerge. Trends in Immunology , 22 , 556-560.

Fruth, U., Solioz, N. and Louis, J.A. (1993) Leishmania major interferes with antigen presentation by infected macrophages. Journal of Immunology , 150 , 1857-1864.

Gahmberg, C.G., Valmu, L., Fagerholm, S., Kotovuori, P., Ihanus, E., Tian, L. and Pessa-Morikawa, T. (1998) Leukocyte integrins and inflammation. Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences , 54 , 549-555.

Ganguly, N.K. (2002) Oral miltefosine may revolutionize treatment of visceral leishmaniasis: The potential impact of miltefosine on visceral leishmaniasis in India. TDRnews , 68 , 2.

Ganju, R.K., Brubaker, S.A., Chernock, R.D., Avraham, S. and Groopman, J.E. (2000) β-chimiokine receptor CCR5 signals through SHP1, SHP2, and Syk. Journal of Biological Chemistry , 275 , 17263-17268.

Gantt, K.R., Goldman, T.L., McCormick, M.L., Miller, M.A., Jeronimo, S.M.B., Nascimento, E.T., Britigan, B.E. and Wilson, M.E. (2001) Oxidative Responses of Human and Murine Macrophages During Phagocytosis of Leishmania chagasi. The Journal of Immunology , 167 , 893-901.

Gantt, K.R., Schultz-Cherry, S., Rodriguez, N., Jeronimo, S.M., Nascimento, E.T., Goldman, T.L., Recker, T.J., Miller, M.A. and Wilson, M.E. (2003) Activation of TGF-beta by Leishmania chagasi: importance for parasite survival in macrophages. Journal of Immunology , 170 , 2613-2620.

Gao, J., Morrison, D.C., Parmely, T.J., Russell, S.W. and Murphy, W.J. (1997) An interferon-gamma-activated site (GAS) is necessary for full expression of the mouse iNOS gene in response to interferon-gamma and lipopolysaccharide. Journal of Biological Chemistry , 272 , 1226-1230.

Gao, J.J., Zuvanich, E.G., Xue, Q., Horn, D.L., Silverstein, R. and Morrison, D.C. (1999) Cutting edge: bacterial DNA and LPS act in synergy in inducing nitric oxide production in RAW 264.7 macrophages. Journal of Immunology , 163 , 4095-4099.

Ghosh, S., Bhattacharyya, S., Das, S., Raha, S., Maulik, N., Das, D.K., Roy, S. and Majumdar, S. (2001) Generation of ceramide in murine macrophages infected with Leishmania donovani alters macrophage signaling events and aids intracellular parasitic survival. Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry , 223 , 47-60.

Ghosh, S., Bhattacharyya, S., Sirkar, M., Sa, G.S., Das, T., Majumdar, D., Roy, S. and Majumdar, S. (2002) Leishmania donovani suppresses activated protein 1 and NF-kappaB activation in host macrophages via ceramide generation: involvement of extracellular signal-regulated kinase. Infection and Immunity , 70 , 6828-6838.

Ghosh, S., Goswami, S. and Adhya, S. (2003) Role of superoxide dismutase in survival of Leishmania within the macrophage. The Biochemical Journal , 369 , 447-452.

Ghosh, S. and Karin, M. (2002) Missing pieces in the NF-kappaB puzzle. Cell , 109 Suppl , S81-S96.

Ghosh, S., May, M.J. and Kopp, E.B. (1998) NF-kappa B and Rel proteins: evolutionarily conserved mediators of immune responses. Annual Review of Immunology , 16 , 225-260.

Gilbert, S.F. (1996) Biologie du développement . De Boeck Université, Paris.

Glickman, M.H. and Ciechanover, A. (2002) The ubiquitin-proteasome proteolytic pathway: Destruction for the sake of construction. Physiological Reviews , 82 , 373-428.

Goekjian, P.G. and Jirousek, M.R. (1999) Protein kinase C in the treatment of disease: signal transduction pathways, inhibitors, and agents in development. Current Medicinal Chemistry , 6 , 877-903.

Goh, K.C., deVeer, M.J. and Williams, B.R. (2000) The protein kinase PKR is required for p38 MAPK activation and the innate immune response to bacterial endotoxin. The Embo Journal , 19 , 4292-4297.

Goh, K.C., Haque, S.J. and Williams, B.R. (1999) p38 MAP kinase is required for STAT1 serine phosphorylation and transcriptional activation induced by interferons. The Embo Journal , 18 , 5601-5608.

Gorak, P.M.A., Engwerda, C.R. and Kaye, P.M. (1998) Dendritic cells, but not macrophages, produce IL-12 immediately following Leishmania donovani infection. European Journal of Immunology , 28 , 687-695.

Gotoh, T. and Mori, M. (1999) Arginase II downregulates nitric oxide (NO) production and prevents NO-mediated apoptosis in murine macrophage-derived RAW 264.7 cells. The Journal of Cell Biology , 144 , 427-434.

Gramiccia, M., Gradoni, L. and Orsini, S. (1992) Decreased sensitivity to meglumine antimoniate (Glucantime) of leishmania infantum isolated from dogs after several courses of drug treatment. Annual Tropical Medical Parasitology , 86 , 613-620.

Green, M.C. and Shultz, L.D. (1975) Motheaten, an immunodeficient mutant of the mouse. I. Genetics and pathology. Journal Of Heredity , 66 , 250-258.

Greenblatt, C.L. (1980) The present and future of vaccination for cutaneous leishmaniasis. Progress in Clinical and Biological Research , 47 , 259-285.

Greenhalgh, C.J. and Hilton, D.J. (2001) Negative regulation of cytokine signaling. Journal of Leukocyte Biology , 70 , 348-356.

Gresser, I., Aguet, M., Morel-Maroger, L., Woodrow, D., Puvion-Dutilleul, F., Guillon, J.C. and Maury, C. (1981) Electrophoretically pure mouse interferon inhibits growth, induces liver and kidney lesions, and kills suckling mice. American Journal of Pathology , 102 , 396-402.

Grogl, M., Thomason, T.N. and Franke, E.D. (1992) Drug resistance in leishmaniasis: its implication in systemic chemotherapy of cutaneous and muco-cutaneous disease. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene , 47 , 117–126.

Groll, M., Ditzel, L., Loewe, J., Stock, D., Bochtler, M., Bartunik, H.D. and Huber, R. (1997) Structure of 20S proteasome from yeast at a 2.4

Angstrom resolution. Nature , 386 , 463–471.

Guerin, P.J., Olliaro, P., Sundar, S., Boelaert, M., Croft, S.L., Desjeux, P., Wasunna, M.K. and Bryceson, A.D.M. (2002) Visceral leishmaniasis: current status of control,

diagnosis, and treatment, and a proposed

research and development agenda. Lancet Infectious Diseases , 2 , 494-501.

Gurunathan, S., Sacks, D.L., Brown, D.R., Reiner, S.L., Charest, H., Glaichenhaus, N. and Seder, R.A. (1997) Vaccination with DNA encoding the immunodominant LACK parasite antigen confers protective immunity to mice infected with Leishmania major . Journal of Experimental Medicine , 186 , 1137–1147.

Guy, R.A. and Belosevic, M. (1993) Comparison of receptors required for entry of Leishmania major amastigotes into macrophages. Infection and Immunity , 61 , 1553-1558.

Halbig, P., Hodjati, M.H., Mazloumi-Gavgani, A.S., Mohite, H. and Davies, C.R. (2000) Further evidence that deltamethrin-impregnated collars protect domestic dogs from sandfly bites. Medical Veterinarian Entomology , 14 , 223-226.

Hall, L.R. and Titus, R.G. (1995) Sand fly vector saliva selectively modulates macrophage functions that inhibit killing of Leishmania major and nitric oxide production. Journal of Immunology , 155 , 3501-3506.

Hampton, M.B., Kettle, A.J. and Winterbourn, C.C. (1998) Inside the neutrophil phagosome: oxidants, myeloperoxidase, and bacterial killing. Blood , 92 , 3007-3017.

Handman, E. (2001) Leishmaniasis: Current status of vaccine development. CLINICAL MICROBIOLOGY REVIEWS , 14 , 229 - +.

Handman, E., Hocking, R.E., Mitchell, G.F. and Spithill, T.W. (1983) Isolation and characterization of infective and non-infective clones of Leishmania tropica . Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology , 7 , 111–126.

Hansen, S.K., Baeuerle, P.A. and Blasi, F. (1994) Purification, reconstitution, and I kappa B association of the c-Rel-p65 (RelA) complex, a strong activator of transcription. Molecular and Cellular Biology , 14 , 2593-2603.

Haque, S.J., Harbor, P., Tabrizi, M., Yi, T. and Williams, B.R. (1998) Protein-tyrosine phosphatase Shp-1 is a negative regulator of IL-4- and IL-13-dependent signal transduction. Journal of Biological Chemistry , 273 , 33893-33896.

Harashima, A., Suzuki, M., Okochi, A., Yamamoto, M., Matsuo, Y., Motoda, R., Yoshioka, T. and Orita, K. (2002) CD45 tyrosine phosphatase inhibits erythroid differentiation of umbilical cord blood CD34+ cells associated with selective inactivation of Lyn. Blood , 100 , 4440-4445.

Harpur, A.G., Andres, A.C., Ziemiecki, A., Aston, R.R. and Wilks, A.F. (1992) JAK2, a third member of the JAK family of protein tyrosine kinases. Oncogene , 7 , 1347-1353.

Haspel, R.L. and Darnell, J.E. (1999) A nuclear protein tyrosine phosphatase is required for the inactivation of Stat1. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America , 96 , 10188-10193.

Haspel, R.L., Salditt-Georgieff, M. and Darnell, J.E.J. (1996) The rapid inactivation of nuclear tyrosine phosphorylated Stat1 depends upon a protein tyrosine phosphatase. Embo Journal , 15 , 6262-6268.

Hatzigeorgiou, D.E., Geng, J., Zhu, B., Zhang, Y., Liu, K., Rom, W.N., Fenton, M.J., Turco, S.J. and Ho, J.L. (1996) Lipophosphoglycan from Leishmania suppresses agonist-induced interleukin 1β gene expressoion in human monocytes via a unique promoter sequence. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science of the United States of America , 93 , 14708-14714-14713.

Hausmann, K. and Hülsmann, N. (1996) Protozoology . Thieme Medical Publishers, Inc., New York.

Hawn, T.R., Ozinsky, A., Underhill, D.M., Buckner, F.S., Akira, S. and Aderem, A. (2002) Leishmania major activates IL-1 alpha expression in macrophages through a MyD88-dependent pathway. Microbes and Infection , 4 , 763-771.

Hayes, S.M., Shultz, L.D. and Greiner, D.L. (1992) Thymic involution in viable motheaten (me(v)) mice is associated with a loss of intrathymic precursor activity. Developmental Immunology , 2 , 191-205.

Heinzel, F.P., Rerko, R.M. and Hujer, A.M. (1998) Underproduction of interleukin-12 in susceptible mice during progressive leishmaniasis is due to decreased CD40 activity. Cellular Immunology , 184 , 129-142.

Helgason, C.D., Damen, J.E., Rosten, P., Grewal, R., Sorensen, P., Chappel, S.M., Borowski, A., Jirik, F., Krystal, G. and Humphries, R.K. (1998) Targeted disruption of SHIP leads to hemopoietic perturbations, lung pathology, and a shortened life span. Genes & Development , 12 , 1610-1620.

Hershko, A., Heller, H., Elias, S. and Ciechanover, A. (1983) Components of the ubiquitin protein ligase system: resolution, affinity purification and role in protein breakdown. Journal of Biological Chemistry , 258 , 8206–8214.

Herwaldt, B.L. (1999) Leishmaniasis. Lancet , 354 , 1191-1199.

Herzenberg, L.A., Stall, A.M., Lalor, P.A., Sidman, C., Moore, W.A. and Parks, D.R. (1986) The Ly-1 B cell lineage. Immunological Reviews , 93 , 81-102.

Hilkens, C.M., Is'harc, H., Lillemeier, B.F., Strobl, B., Bates, P.A., Behrmann, I. and Kerr, I.M. (2001) A region encompassing the FERM domain of Jak1 is necessary for binding to the cytokine receptor gp130. FEBS Letters , 505 , 87-91.

Hilton, D.J., Richardson, R.T., Alexander, W.S., Viney, E.M., Willson, T.A., Sprigg, N.S., Starr, R., Nicholson, S.E., Metcalf, D. and Nicola, N.A. (1998) Twenty proteins containing a C-terminal SOCS box form five structural classes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America , 95 , 114-119.

Holm, A., Tejle, K., Gunnarsson, T., Magnusson, K.E., Descoteaux, A. and Rasmusson, B. (2003) Role of protein kinase C alpha for uptake of unopsonized prey and phagosomal maturation in macrophages. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications , 302 , 653-658.

Holm, A., Tejle, K., Magnusson, K.E., Descoteaux, A. and Rasmusson, B. (2001) Leishmania donovani lipophosphoglycan causes periphagosomal actin accumulation: correlation with impaired translocation of PKCalpha and defective phagosome maturation. Cellular Microbiology , 3 , 439-447.

Hondowicz, B.D., Scharton-Kersten, T.M., Jones, D.E. and Scott, P. (1997) Leishmania major -infected C3H mice treated with anti-IL-12 mAb devolop but do not maintain a Th2 response. Journal of Immunology , 159 , 5024-5031.

Horvath, C.M. (2000) STAT proteins and transcriptional responses to extracellular signals. Trends in Biochemical Science , 25 , 496-502.

Horvath, C.M. and Darnell, J.E.J. (1997) The state of the STATs: recent developments in the study of signal transduction to the nucleus. Current Opinion in Cell Biology , 9 , 233-239.

Hsu, H.C., Shultz, L.D., Su, X., Shi, J., Yang, P.A., Relyea, M.J., Zhang, H.G. and Mountz, J.D. (2001) Mutation of the Hematopoietic cell phosphatase ( Hcph ) gene is associated with resistance to γ-irradiation-induced apoptosis in Src homology protein tyrosine phosphatase (SHP)-1-deficient 'Motheaten' mutant mice. Journal of Immunology , 166 , 772-780.

Huang, H., Chan, J., Wittner, M., Jelicks, L.A., Morris, S.A., Factor, S.M., Weiss, L.M., Braunstein, V.L., Bacchi, C.J., Yarlett, N., Chandra, M., Shirani, J. and Tanowitz, H.B. (1999) Expression of cardiac cytokines and inducible form of nitric oxide synthase (NOS2) in Trypanosoma cruzi-infected mice. Journal of Molecular and Cellular Cardiology , 31 , 75-88.

Huang, Z.Y., Hunter, S., Kim, M.K., Indik, Z.K. and Schreiber, A.D. (2003) The effect of phosphatase SHP-1 and SHIP-1 on signaling by the ITIM- and ITAM-containing Fcgamma receptors FcgammaRIIB and FcgammaRIIA. Journal of Leukocyte Biology , 73 , 823-829.

Huber, M., Timms, E., Mak, T.W., Rollinghoff, M. and Lohoff, M. (1998) Effective and long-lasting immunity against the parsite Leishmania major in CD8-deficient mice. Infection and Immunity , 66 , 3968-3970.

Imagawa, M., Chiu, R. and Karin, M. (1987) Transcription factor AP-2 mediates induction by two different signal-transduction pathways: protein kinase C and cAMP. Cell , 51 , 251-260.

Ip, Y.T. and Davis, R.J. (1998) Signal transduction by the c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK)--from inflammation to development. Current Opinion in Cell Biology , 10 , 205-219.

Irie-Sasaki, J., Sasaki, T., Matsumoto, W., Opavsky, A., Cheng, M., Welstead, G., Griffiths, E., Krawczyk, C., Richardson, C.D., Aitken, K., Iscove, N., Koretzky, G., Johnson, P., Liu, P., Rothstein, D.M. and Penninger, J.M. (2001) CD45 is a JAK phosphatase and negatively regulates cytokine receptor signalling. Nature , 409 , 349-354.

Jackson, P.K. (2001) A new RING for SUMO: wrestling transcriptional responses into nuclear bodies with PIAS family E3 SUMO ligases. Genes & Development , 15 , 3053-3058.

Jaffe, C.L., Perez, L. and Schnur, L.F. (1990) Lipophosphoglycan and secreted acid phosphatase of Leishmania tropica share species-specific epitopes. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology , 41 , 233–240.

Janeway, C.A. and Travers, P. (1996) Immunobiology: The immune system in health and disease . Garland Publishing Inc., New York.

Janknecht, R., Ernst, W.H., Pingoud, V. and Nordheim, A. (1993) Activation of ternary complex factor Elk-1 by MAP kinases. The Embo Journal , 12 , 5097-5104.

Jiao, H., Yang, W., Berrada, K., Tabrizi, M., Shultz, L. and Yi, T. (1997) Macrophages from motheaten and viable motheaten mutant mice show increased proliferative responses to GM-CSF: detection of potential HCP substrates in GM-CSF signal transduction. Experimental Hematology , 25 , 592-600.

Joliat, M.J., Lang, P.A., Lyons, B.L., Burzenski, L., Lynes, M.A., Yi, T., Sundberg, J.P. and Shultz, L.D. (2002) Absence of CD5 dramatically reduces progression of pulmonary inflammatory lesions in SHP-1 protein-tyrosine phosphatase-deficient 'viable motheaten' mice. Journal of Autoimmunity , 18 , 105-117.

Joshi, P.B., Sacks, D.L., Modi, G. and McMaster, W.R. (1998) Targeted gene deletion of Leishmania major genes encoding developmental stage-specific leishmanolysin (GP63). Molecular Microbiology , 27 , 519-530.

Junghae, M. and Raynes, J.G. (2002) Activation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase attenuates Leishmania donovani infection in macrophages. Infection and Immunity , 70 , 5026-5035.

Kahyo, T., Nishida, T. and Yasuda, H. (2001) Involvement of PIAS1 in the sumoylation of tumor suppressor p53. Molecular Cell , 8 , 713-718.

Kalesnikoff, J., Sly, L.M., Hughes, M.R., Buchse, T., Rauh, M.J., Cao, L.P., Lam, V., Mui, A., Huber, M. and Krystal, G. (2003) The role of SHIP in cytokine-induced signaling. Reviews of Physiology, Biochemistry and Pharmacology .

Kamanaka, M., Yu, P., Yasui, T., Yoshida, K., Kawabe, T., Horii, T., Kishimoto, T. and Kikutani, H. (1996) Protective role of CD40 in Leishmania major infection at two distinct phases of cell-mediated immunity. Immunity , 4 , 275-281.

Kamhawi, S., Belkaid, Y., Modi, G., Rowton, E. and Sacks, D. (2000a) Protection against cutaneous Leishmaniasis resulting from bites of uninfected sand flies. SCIENCE , 290 , 1351 - 1354.

Kamhawi, S., Modi, G.B., Pimenta, P.F.P., Rowton, E. and Sacks, D.L. (2000b) The vectorial competence of Phlebotomus sergenti is specific for Leishmania tropica and is controlled by species-specific, lipophosphoglycan mediated midgut attachment. Parasitology , 121 , 25-33.

Kanaly, S.T., Nashleanas, M., Hondowicz, B. and Scott, P. (1999) TNF receptor p55 is required for elimination of inflammatory cells following control of intracellular pathogens. Journal of Immunology , 163 , 3883-3889.

Kane, M.M. and Mosser, D.M. (2000) Leishmania parasites and their ploys to disrupt macrophage activation. Current Opinion in Hematology , 7 , 26-31.

Kang, S.M., Tran, A.C., Grilli, M. and Lenardo, M.J. (1992) NF-kappa B subunit regulation in nontransformed CD4+ T lymphocytes. Science , 256 , 1452-1456.

Kant, A.M., De, P., Peng, X., Yi, T., Rawlings, D.J., Kim, J.S. and Durden, D.L. (2002) SHP-1 regulates Fcgamma receptor-mediated phagocytosis and the activation of RAC. Blood , 100 , 1852-1859.

Karnovsky, M.L. (1981) Metchnikoff in Messina: a century of studies on phagocytosis. New England Journal of Medicine , 304 , 1178-1180.

Katso, R., Okkenhaug, K., Ahmadi, K., White, S., Timms, J. and Waterfield, M.D. (2001) Cellular function of phosphoinositide 3-kinases: implications for development, homeostasis, and cancer. Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology , 17 , 615-675.

Katz, O., Waitumbi, J.N., Zer, R. and Warburg, A. (2000) Adenosine, AMP, and protein phosphatase activity in sandfly saliva. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygene , 62 , 145-150.

Kawazoe, Y., Naka, T., Fujimoto, M., Kohzaki, H., Morita, Y., Narazaki, M., Okumura, K., Saitoh, H., Nakagawa, R., Uchiyama, Y., Akira, S. and Kishimoto, T. (2001) Signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT)-induced STAT inhibitor 1 (SSI-1)/suppressor of cytokine signaling 1 (SOCS1) inhibits insulin signal transduction pathway through modulating insulin receptor substrate 1 (IRS-1) phosphorylation. The Journal of Experimental Medicine , 193 , 263-269.

Kaye, P.M., Rogers, N.J., Curry, A.J. and Scott, J.C. (1994) Deficient expression of co-stimulatory molecules on Leishmania-infected macrophages. European Journal of Immunology , 24 , 2850-2854.

Kellina, O.I. (1981) Problems and current lines in investigations on the epidemiology of leishmaniasis and its control in the USSR. Bulletin of the Society for Pathological and Exotic Filiales , 74 , 306–318.

Keyse, S. (2000) Protein phosphatases and the regulation of mitogen-activated protein kinase signalling. Current Opinion in Cell Biology , 12 , 186-192.

Khaled, A.R., Butfiloski, E.J., Sobel, E.S. and Schiffenbauer, J. (1998) Functional consequences of the SHP-1 defect in motheaten viable mice: role of NF-kappa B. Cellular Immunology , 185 , 49-58.

Kile, B., Nicola, N. and Alexander, W. (2001) Negative regulators of cytokine signaling. International Journal of Hematology , 73 , 292 - 298.

Kilgore, K.S., Imlay, M.M., Szaflarski, J.P., Silverstein, F.S., Malani, A.N., Evans, V.M. and Warren, J.S. (1997) Neutrophils and reactive oxygen intermediates mediate glucan-induced pulmonary granuloma formation through the local induction of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1. Laboratory Investigation , 76 , 191-201.

Killick-Kendrick, R. (1985) Some epidemiological consequences of the evolutionary fit between Leishmaniae and their phlebotomine vectors. Bulletin of the Society for Pathological and Exotic Filiales , 78 , 747-755.

Killick-Kendrick, R. (1990) Phlebotomine vectors of the leishmaniases: a review. Medical and Veterinary Entomology , 4 , 1-24.

Killick-Kendrick, R., Killick-Kendrick, M., Focheux, C., Dereure, J., Puech, M.P. and Cadiergues, M.C. (1997) Protection of dogs from bites of phlebotomine sandflies by deltamethrin collars for control of canine leishmaniasis. Medical and Veterinarian Entomology , 11 , 105-111.

Kim, C.H., Hangoc, G., Cooper, S., Helgason, C.D., Yew, S., Humphries, R.K., Krystal, G. and Broxmeyer, H.E. (1999a) Altered responsiveness to chemokines due to targeted disruption of SHIP. The Journal of Clinical Investigation , 104 , 1751-1759.

Kim, C.H., Qu, C.K., Hangoc, G., Cooper, S., Anzai, N., Feng, G.S. and Broxmeyer, H.E. (1999b) Abnormal chemokine-induced responses of immature and mature hematopoietic cells from motheaten mice implicate the protein tyrosine phosphatase SHP-1 in chemokine responses. Journal of Experimental Medicine , 190 , 681-690.

Kim, K.I., Baek, S.H. and Chung, C.H. (2002) Versatile protein tag, SUMO: its enzymology and biological function. Journal of Cellular Physiology , 191 , 257-268.

Kim, T.K. and Maniatis, T. (1996) Regulation of interferon-gamma-activated STAT1 by the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway. Science , 273 , 1717-1719.

Kim, Y.M., Lee, B.S., Yi, K.Y. and Paik, S.G. (1997) Upstream NF-κB site is required for the maximal expression of mouse inducible nitric oxide synthase gene in interferon-γ plus lipopolysaccharide-induced RAW 264.7 macrophages. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications , 236 , 655-660.

Kima, P.E., Ruddle, N.H. and McMahon-Pratt, D. (1987) Presentation via the class I pathway by Leishmania amazonensis -infected macrophages of an endogenous leishmanial antigen to CD8+ T cells. Journal of Immunology , 159 , 1828-1834.

Kima, P.E., Soong, L., Chicharro, C., Ruddle, N.H. and McMahon-Pratt, D. (1996) Leishmania -infected macrophages sequester endogenously synthesized parasite antigens from presentation to CD4+ T cells. European Journal of Immunology , 26 , 3163-3169.

Kishihara, K., Penninger, J., Wallace, V.A., Kundig, T.M., Kawai, K., Wakeham, A., Timms, E., Pfeffer, K., Ohashi, P.S., Thomas, M.L., Furlonger, C., Paige, J.C. and Mak, W.T. (1993) Normal B lymphocyte development but impaired T cell maturation in CD45-exon 6 protein tyrosine phosphatase-deficient mice. Cell , 74 , 143-156.

Kisselev, A.F., Akopian, T.N., Woo, K.M. and Goldberg, A.L. (1999) The size of peptides generated from protein by mammalian 26S and 20S proteasomes. Journal of Biological Chemistry , 274 , 3363–3371.

Kisseleva, T., Bhattacharya, S., Braunstein, J. and Schindler, C.W. (2002) Signaling through the JAK/STAT pathway, recent advances and future challenges. Gene , 285 , 1-24.

Kitamura, Y., Takahashi, H., Nomura, Y. and Taniguchi, T. (1996) Possible involvement of Janus kinase Jak2 in interferon-γ induction of nitric oxide synthase in rat glial cells. European Journal of Pharmacology , 306 , 297-306.

Klingmüller, U., Lorenz, U., Cantley, L.C., Neel, B.G. and Lodish, H.F. (1995) Specific recruitment of SH-PTP1 to the erythropoietin receptor causes inactivation of JAK2 and termination of proliferative signals. Cell , 80 , 729-738.

Kloetzel, P.M. (2001) Antigen processing by the proteasome. Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology , 2 , 179–187.

Kohlhuber, F., Rogers, N.C., Watling, D., Feng, J., Guschin, D., Briscoe, J., Witthuhn, B.A., Kotenko, S.V., Pestka, S., Stark, G.R., Ihle, J.N. and Kerr, I.M. (1997) A JAK1/JAK2 chimera can sustain alpha and gamma interferon responses. Molecular and Cellular Biology , 17 , 695-706.

Komschlies, K.L., Greiner, D.L., Shultz, L. and Goldschneider, I. (1987) Defective lymphopoiesis in the bone marrow of motheaten (me/me) and viable motheaten (mev/mev) mutant mice. III. Normal mouse bone marrow cells enable mev/mev prothymocytes to generate thymocytes after intravenous transfer. The Journal of Experimental Medicine , 166 , 1162-1167.

Kornitzer, D. and Ciechanover, A. (2000) Modes of regulation of ubiquitin-mediated protein degradation. Journal of Cellular Physiology , 182 , 1-11.

Kotaja, N., Karvonen, U., Jänne, O.A. and Palvimo, J.J. (2002) PIAS proteins modulate transcription factors by functioning as SUMO-1 ligases. Molecular and Cellular Biology , 22 , 5222-5234.

Kozlowski, M., Larose, L., Lee, F., Le, D.M., Rottapel, R. and Siminovitch, K.A. (1998) SHP-1 binds and negatively modulates the c-Kit receptor by interaction with tyrosine 569 in the c-Kit juxtamembrane domain. Molecular and Cellular Biology , 18 , 2089-2099.

Kozlowski, M., Mlinaric-Rascan, I., Feng, G.S., Shen, R., Pawson, T. and Siminovitch, K.A. (1993) Expression and catalytic activity of the tyrosine phosphatase PTP1C is severely impaired in motheaten and viable motheaten mice. Journal of Experimental Medicine , 178 , 2157-2163.

Krautwald, S., Buscher, D., Kummer, V., Buder, S. and Baccarini, M. (1996) Involvement of the protein tyrosine phosphatase SHP-1 in Ras-mediated activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway. Molecular and Cellular Biology , 16 , 5955-5963.

Krieger, M. (1997) The other side of scavenger receptors: pattern recognition for host defense. Current Opinion in Lipidology , 8 , 275-280.

Kristof, A.S., Marks-Konczalik, J. and Moss, J. (2001) Mitogen-activated protein kinases mediate activator protein-1-dependent human inducible nitric-oxide synthase promoter activation. Journal of Biological Chemistry , 276 , 8445-8452.

Kruger, J., Butler, J., Cherapanov, V., Dong, Q., Ginzberg, H., Govindarajan, A., Grinstein, S., Siminovitch, K. and Downey, G. (2000) Deficiency of Src homology 2-containing phosphatase 1 results in abnormalities in murine neutrophil function: Studies in motheaten mice. Journal of Immunology , 165 , 5847-5859.

Krystal, G. (2000) Lipid phosphatases in the immune system. Seminars in Immunology , 12 , 397-403.

Kwan, W.C., McMaster, W.R., Wong, N. and Reiner, N.E. (1992) Inhibition of expression of major histocompatibility complex class II molecules in macrophages infected with Leishmania donovani occurs at the level of gene transcription via a cyclic AMP-independent mechanism. Infection and Immunity , 60 , 2115-2120.

Lakshminarayanan, V., Beno, D.W.A., Costa, R.H. and Roebuck, K.A. (1997) Differential regulation of interleukin-8 and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 by H2O2 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha in endothelial and epithelial cells. Journal of Biological Chemistry , 272 , 32910-32918.

Lang, T., de Chastellier, C., Frehel, C., Hellio, R., Metezeau, P., de Souza Lao, S. and Antoine, J.C. (1994a) Distribution of MHC class I and of MHC class II molecules in macrophages infected with Leishmania amazonensis . Journal of Cell Science , 107 , 69-82.

Lang, T., Hellio, R., Kaye, P.M. and Antoine, J.-C. (1994b) Leishmania donovani -infected macrophages: characterization of the parasitophorous vacuole and potential role of this organelle in antigen presentation. Journal of Cell Science , 107 , 2137-2150.

Laskay, T., Diefenbach, A., Röllinghoff, M. and Solbach, W. (1995) Early parasite containment is decisive for resistance to Leishmania major infection. European Journal of Immunology , 25 , 2220-2227.

Law, C.L., Sidorenko, S.P., Chandran, K.A., Zhao, Z., Shen, S.H., Fischer, E.H. and Clark, E.A. (1996) CD22 associates with protein tyrosine phosphatase 1C, Syk and phospholipase C-γ1 upon B cell activation. Journal of Experimental Medicine , 193 , 547-560.

Lawler, S., Fleming, Y., Goedert, M. and Cohen, P. (1998) Synergistic activation of SAPK1/JNK1 by two MAP kinase kinases in vitro. Current Biology , 8 , 1387-1390.

Lefer, D.J., Jones, S.P., Girod, W.G., Baines, A., Grisham, M.B., Cockrell, A.S., Huang, P.L. and Scalia, R. (1999) Leukocyte-endothelial cell interactions in nitric oxide synthase-deficient mice. The American Journal of Physiology , 276 , H1943-H1950.

Lehrer, R.I. and Ganz, T. (2002) Defensins of vertebrate animals. Current Opinion in Immunology , 14 , 96-102.

Leonard, W.J. and O'Shea, J.J. (1998) Jaks and STATs: biological implications. Annual Review of Immunology , 16 , 293-322.

Li, W., Nishimura, R., Kashishian, A., Batzer, A.G., Kim, W.J., Cooper, J.A. and Schlessinger, J. (1994) A new function for a phosphotyrosine phosphatase: linking GRB2-Sos to a receptor tyrosine kinase. Molecular and Cellular Biology , 14 , 509-517.

Liao, J., Fu, Y. and Shuai, K. (2000) Distinct roles of the NH2- and COOH-terminal domains of the protein inhibitor of activated signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) 1 (PIAS1) in cytokine-induced PIAS1-Stat1 interaction. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America , 97 , 5267-5272.

Liew, F.Y., Millott, S., Parkinson, C., Palmer, R.M.J. and Moncada, S. (1990) Macrophage killing of Leishmania parasite in vivo is mediated by nitric oxide from L-arginine. Journal of Immunology , 144 , 4794-4797.

Lima, G.M., Vallochi, A.L., Silva, U.R., Bevilacqua, E.M., Kiffer, M.M. and Abrahamsohn, I.A. (1998) The role of polymorphonuclear leukocytes in the resistance to cutaneous Leishmaniasis. Immunology Letters , 64 , 145-151.

Lima, H.C. and Titus, R.G. (1996) Effects of sand fly vector saliva on development of cutaneous lesions and the immune response to Leishmania braziliensis in BALB/c mice. Infection and Immunity , 64 , 5442-5445.

Lin, T., Hirji, N., Stenton, G., Gilchrist, M., Grill, B., Schreiber, A. and Befus, A. (2000) Activation of macrophage CD8: Pharmacological studies of TNF and IL-1 beta production. Journal of Immunology , 164 , 1783-1792.

Lindahl, K.F., Byers, D.E., Dabhi, M., Hovik, R., Jones, E.P., Smith, G.P., Wang, C.R., Xiao, H. and Yoshino, M. (1997) H2-M3, a full-service class Ib histocompatibility antigen. Annual Review of Immunology , 15 , 851-879.

Liu, B., Liao, J., Rao, X., Kushner, S.A., Chung, C.D., Chang, D.D. and Shuai, K. (1998a) Inhibition of Stat1-mediated gene activation by PIAS1. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America , 95 , 10626-10631.

Liu, F., Sells, M.A. and Chernoff, J. (1998b) Protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B negatively regulates integrin signaling. Current Biology , 8 , 173-176.

Liu, K.D., Gaffen, S.L. and Goldsmith, M.A. (1998c) JAK/STAT signaling by cytokine receptors. Current Opinion in Immunology , 10 , 271-278.

Locksley, R.M., Reiner, S.L., Hatam, F., Littman, D.R. and Killeen, N. (1993) Helper T cells without CD4: control of leishmaniasis in CD4-deficient mice. Science , 261 , 1448-1451.

Long, E.O. (1999) Regulation of immune responses through inhibitory receptors. Annual Review of Immunology , 17 , 875-904.

Look, D.C., Pelletier, M.R., Tidwell, R.M., Roswit, W.T. and Holtzman, M.J. (1995) Stat1 depends on transcriptional synergy with Sp1. The Journal of Biological Chemistry , 270 , 30264-30267.

Lorenz, U., Ravichandran, K.S., Burakoff, S.J. and Neel, B.G. (1996) Lack of SHPTP1 results in src-family kinase hyperactivation and thymocyte hyperresponsiveness. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America , 93 , 9624-9629.

Lorenz, U., Ravichandran, K.S., Pei, D., Walsh, C.T., Burakoff, S.J. and Neel, B.G. (1994) Lck-dependent tyrosyl phosphorylation of the phosphotyrosine phosphatase SH-PTP1 in murine T cells. Molecular and Cellular Biology , 14 , 1824-1834.

Lovelace, J.K., Dwyer, D.M. and Gottlieb, M. (1986) Purification and characterization of the extracellular acid phosphatase of Leishmania donovani . Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology , 20 , 243-251.

Lovelace, J.K. and Gottlieb, M. (1986) Comparison of extracellular acid phosphatases from various isolates of Leishmania . American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygene , 35 , 1121-1128.

Lowenstein, C.J., Alley, E.W., Raval, P., Snowman, A.M., Snyder, S.H., Russell, S.W. and Murphy, W.J. (1993) Macrophage nitric oxide synthase gene: Two upstream regions mediate induction by interferon γ and lipopolysaccharide. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America , 90 , 9730-9734.

Loy, A.L. and Goodnow, C.C. (2002) Novel approaches for identifying genes regulating lymphocyte development and function. Current Opinion in Immunology , 14 , 260-265.

MacMicking, J., Xie, Q.W. and Nathan, C. (1997) Nitric oxide and macrophage function. Annual Review of Immunology , 15 , 323-350.

Mahalingam, S. and Karupiah, G. (1999) Chemokines and chemokine receptors in infectious diseases. Immunology and Cell Biology , 77 , 469-475.

Malek, R.L. and Halvorsen, S.W. (1999) Ciliary neutrophic factor and phorbol ester each decrease selected STAT3 pools in neuroblastoma cells by proteasome-dependent mechanisms. Cytokine , 11 , 192-199.

Mansfield, J.M. and Olivier, M. (2002) Immune Evasion by Parasites. In Kaufmann, S.H.E., Sher, A. and Ahmed, R. (eds.), Immunology of Infectious Diseases . ASM Press, Washington, D.C., pp. 379-392.

Marine, J.C., McKay, C., Wang, D., Topham, D.J., Parganas, E., Nakajima, H., Pendeville, H., Yasukawa, H., Sasaki, A., Yoshimura, A. and Ihle, J.N. (1999) SOCS3 is essential in the regulation of fetal liver erythropoiesis. Cell , 98 , 617-627.

Maroli, M., Mizzon, V., Siragusa, C., D'Oorazi, A. and Gradoni, L. (2001) Evidence for an impact on the incidence of canine leishmaniasis by the mass use of deltamethrin-impregnated dog collars in southern Italy. Medical Veterinarian Entomology , 15 , 358-363.

Marrero, M.B., Venema, V.J., He, H., Caldwell, R.B. and Venema, R.C. (1998a) Inhibition by the JAK/STAT pathway of IFNgamma- and LPS-stimulated nitric oxide synthase induction in vascular smooth muscle cells. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications , 252 , 508-512.

Marrero, M.B., Venema, V.J., Ju, H., Eaton, D.C. and Venema, R.C. (1998b) Regulation of angiotensin II-induced JAK2 tyrosine phosphorylation: roles of SHP-1 and SHP-2. The American Journal of Physiology , 275 , C1216-C1223.

Marth, T. and Kelsall, B.L. (1997) Regulation of interleukin-12 by complement receptor 3 signaling. Journal of Experimental Medicine , 185 , 1987-1995.

Martin, A., Tsui, H.W., Shulman, M.J., Isenman, D. and Tsui, F.W. (1999) Murine SHP-1 splice variants with altered Src homology 2 (SH2) domains. Implications for the SH2-mediated intramolecular regulation of SHP-1. The Journal of Biological Chemistry , 274 , 21725-21734.

Martiny, A., Meyer-Fernandes, J.R., de Souza, W. and Vannier-Santos, M.A. (1999) Altered tyrosine phosphorylation of ERK1 MAP kinase and other macrophage molecules caused by Leishmania amastigotes. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology , 102 , 1-12.

Massa, P.T. and Wu, C. (1996) The role of protein tyrosine phosphatase SHP-1 in the regulation of IFN-gamma signaling in neural cells. Journal of Immunology , 157 , 5139-5144.

Massa, P.T. and Wu, C. (1998) Increased inducible activation of NF-kappaB and responsive genes in astrocytes deficient in the protein tyrosine phosphatase SHP-1. Journal of Interferon and Cytokine Research , 18 , 499-507.

Masuhara, M., Sakamoto, H., Matsumoto, A., Suzuki, R., Yasukawa, H., Mitsui, K., Wakioka, T., Tanimura, S., Sasaki, A., Misawa, H., Yokouchi, M., Ohtsubo, M. and Yoshimura, A. (1997) Cloning and characterization of novel CIS family genes. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications , 239 , 439-446.

Matsumoto, A., Masuhara, M., Mitsui, K., Yokouchi, M., Othsubo, M., Misawa, H., Miyajima, A. and Yoshimura, A. (1997) CIS, a cytokine inducible SH2 protein, is a target of the JAK-STAT5 pathway and modulates STAT5 activation. Blood , 89 , 3148-3154.

Matsumoto, Y., Wang, L.L., Yokoyama, W.M. and Aso, T. (2001) Uterin macrophages express the gp49B inhibitory receptor in midgestation. Journal of Immunology , 166 , 781-786.

Matte, C., Maion, G., Mourad, W. and Olivier, M. (2001) Leishmania donovani-induced macrophages cyclooxygenase-2 and prostaglandin E-2 synthesis. PARASITE IMMUNOLOGY , 23 , 177 - 184.

Matte, C., Marquis, J.-F., Blanchette, J., Gros, P., Faure, R. and Olivier, M. (2000) Peroxovanadium-mediated protection against murine leishmaniasis: role of the modulation of nitric oxide. European Journal of Immunology , 30 , 2555-2564.

Matte, C. and Olivier, M. (2002) Leishmania -induced cellular recruitment during the early inflammatory response: modulation of proinflammatory mediators. Journal of Infectious Diseases , 185 , 673-681.

Mauël, J., Ransijn, A., Corradin, S.B. and Buchmüller-Rouiller, Y. (1995) Effect of PGE2 and of agents that raise cAMP levels on macrophage actvation induced by IFN-γ and TNF-α. Journal of Leukocyte Biology , 58 , 217-224.

May, M.J. and Ghosh, S. (1998) Signal transduction through NF-kappa B. Immunology Today , 19 , 80-88.

Mbow, M.L., Bleyenberg, J.A., Hall, L.R. and Titus, R.G. (1998) Phlebotomus papatasi sand fly salivary gland lysate down-regulates a Th1, but up-regulates a Th2, response in mice infected with Leishmania major . Journal of Immunology , 161 , 5571-5577.

McConville, M.J. and Ralton, J.E. (1997) Developmentally regulated changes in the cell surface architecture of Leishmania parasites. Behring Institute Mitt. , 99 , 34-43.

McConville, M.J., Schnur, L.F., Jaffe, C. and Schneider, P. (1995) Structure of Leishmania lipophosphoglycan: inter- and intra-specific polymorphism in Old World species. Biochemical Journal , 310 , 807-818.

McCubrey, J.A., May, W.S., Duronio, V. and Mufson, A. (2000) Serine/threonine phosphorylation in cytokine signal transduction. Leukemia , 14 , 9-21.

McMaster, W.R., Morrison, C.J., MacDonald, M.H. and Joshi, P.B. (1994) Mutational and functional analysis of the Leishmania surface metalloproteinase GP63: similarities to matrix metalloproteinases. Parasitology , 108 , S29-S36.

McNeely, T.B., Rosen, G., Londner, M.V. and Turco, S.J. (1989) Inhibitory effects on protein kinase C activity by lipophosphoglycan fragments and glycosylphosphatidylinositol antigens of the protozoan parasite Leishmania . Biochemical Journal , 259 , 601-604.

McNeely, T.B. and Turco, S.J. (1987) Inhibition of protein kinase C activity by the Leishmania donovani lipophosphoglycan. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications , 148 , 653-657.

Medzhitov, R. and Janeway, C.A. (1997) Innate immunity: impact on the adaptive immune response. Current Opinion in Immunology , 9 , 4-9.

Mendonca, S.C.F., Russell, D.G. and Coutinho, S.G. (1991) Analysis of the human T cell responsiveness to purified antigens of Leishmania : lipophosphoglycan (LPG) and glycoprotein 63 (GP63). Clinical and Experimental Immunology , 83 , 472–478.

Metcalf, D., Alexander, W.S., Elefanty, A.G., Nicola, N.A., Hilton, D.J., Starr, R., Mifsud, S. and Di Rago, L. (1999) Aberrant hematopoiesis in mice with inactivation of the gene encoding SOCS-1. Leukemia , 13 , 926-934.

Miao, L., Stafford, A., Nir, S., Turco, S.J., Flanagan, T.D. and Epand, R.M. (1995) Potent inhibition of viral fusion by the lipophosphoglycan of Leishmania donovani. Biochemistry , 34 , 4676-4683.

Miles, P.R., Bowman, L., A., R. and Huffman, L. (1998) Constitutive nitric oxide production by rat alveolar macrophages. American Journal of Physiology , 274 , L360-L368.

Miller, B.S. and Zandi, E. (2001) Complete reconstitution of human IkappaB kinase (IKK) complex in yeast. Assessment of its stoichiometry and the role of IKKgamma on the complex activity in the absence of stimulation. The Journal of Biological Chemistry , 276 , 36320-36326.

Modabber, F. (1995) Vaccines against leishmaniasis. Annals in Tropical and Medical Parasitology , 89 , 83–88.

Moll, H., Fuchs, H., Blank, C. and Rollinghoff, M. (1993) Langerhans cells transport Leishmania major from the infected skin to the draining lymph node for presentation to antigen-specific T cells. European Journal of Immunology , 23 , 1595-1601.

Moncada, S., Palmer, R.M. and Higgs, E.A. (1991) Nitric oxide: physiology and pharmacology. Pharmacological Reviews , 43 , 109-142.

Moore, K.J., Labrecque, S. and Matlashewski, G. (1993) Alteration of Leishmania donovani infection levels by selective impairment of macrophage signal transduction. Journal of Immunology , 150 , 4457-4465.

Morita, Y., Naka, T., Kawazoe, Y., Fujimoto, M., Narazaki, M., Nakagawa, R., Fukuyama, H., Nagata, S. and Kishimoto, T. (2000) Signals transducers and activators of transcription (STAT)-induced STAT inhibitor-1 (SSI-1)/suppressor of cytokine signaling-1 (SOCS-1) suppresses tumor necrosis factor alpha-induced cell death in fibroblasts. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America , 97 , 5405-5410.

Mosmann, T.R., Cherwinski, H., Bond, M.W., Giedlin, M.A. and Coffmann, R.L. (1986) Two types of murine helper T cell clone. Definition according to profiles of lymphokine activities and secreted proteins. Journal of Immunology , 126 , 2348-2357.

Mosmann, T.R. and Fowell, D.J. (2002) The Th1/Th2 paradigm in infections. In Kaufmann, S.H.E., Sher, A. and Ahmed, R. (eds.), Immunology of infectious diseases . ASM Press, Washington, D.C., pp. 163-174.

Mosser, D.M. and Edelson, P.J. (1985) The mouse macrophage receptor for C3bi (CR3) is a major mechanism in the phagocytosis of Leishmania promastigotes. Journal of Immunology , 135 , 2785-2789.

Mosser, D.M. and Edelson, P.J. (1987) The third component of complement (C3) is responsible for the intracellular survival of Leishmania major. Nature , 327 , 329-331.

Mosser, D.M. and Rosenthal, L.A. (1993) Leishmania-macrophage interactions: multiple receptors, multiple ligands and diverse cellular responses. Seminars in Cell Biology , 4 , 315-322.

Mowen, K.A., Tang, J., Zhu, W., Schurter, B.T., Shuai, K., Herschman, H.R. and David, M. (2001) Arginine methylation of STAT1 modulates IFNalpha/beta-induced transcription. Cell , 104 , 731-741.

Mu, M.M., Chakravortty, D., Sugiyama, T., Koide, N., Takahashi, K., Mori, I., Yoshida, T. and Yokochi, T. (2001) The inhibitory action of quercetin on lipopolysaccharide-induced nitric oxide production in RAW 264.7 macrophage cells. Journal of Endotoxine Research , 7 , 431-438.

Munder, M., Eichmann, K., Moran, J.M., Centeno, F., Soler, G. and Modolell, M. (1999) Th1/Th2-regulated expression of arginase isoforms in murine macrophages and dendritic cells. Journal of Immunology , 163 , 3771-3777.

Murphy, M.L., Willie, U., Villegas, E.N., Hunter, C.A. and Farrell, J.P. (2001) IL-10 mediates susceptibility to Leishmania donovani infection. European Journal of Immunology , 31 , 2848-2856.

Murray, H.W. (1982) Cell mediated immune response in experimental visceral leishmaniasis: II: oxygen dependent killing of intracellular Leishmania donovani amastigotes. Journal of Immunology , 129 , 351-357.

Murray, H.W. (1999) Kala-azar as an AIDS-related opportunistic infection. AIDS Patient Care STDS , 13 , 459-465.

Murray, H.W. and Nathan, C.F. (1999) Macrophage microbicidal mechanisms in vivo: reactive nitrogen versus oxygen intermediates in the killing of intracellular visceral Leishmania donovani. The Journal of Experimental Medicine , 189 , 741-746.

Musial, A. and Eissa, N.T. (2001) Inducible nitric-oxide synthase is regulated by the proteasome degradation pathway. The Journal of Biological Chemistry , 276 , 24268-24273.

Mustelin, T., Brockdorff, J., Gjorloff-Wingren, A., Tailor, P., Han, S., Wang, X. and Saxena, M. (1998) Lymphocyte activation: the coming of the protein tyrosine phosphatases. Frontiers In Bioscience , 3 , D1060-1096.

Myers, M.P., Andersen, J.N., Cheng, A., Tremblay, M.L., Horvath, C.M., Parisien, J.P., Salmeen, A., Barford, D. and Tonks, N.K. (2001) TYK2 and JAK2 are substrates of protein-tyrosine phosphatase 1B. Journal of Biological Chemistry , 276 , 47771-47774.

Nagata, K., Puls, A., Futter, C., Aspenstrom, P., Schaefer, E., Nakata, T., Hirokawa, N. and Hall, A. (1998) The MAP kinase kinase kinase MLK2 co-localizes with activated JNK along microtubules and associates with kinesin superfamily motor KIF3. The Embo Journal , 17 , 149-158.

Naka, T., Narazaki, M., Hirata, M., Matsumoto, T., Minamoto, S., Aono, A., Nishimoto, N., Kajita, T., Taga, T., Yoshizaki, K., Akira, S. and Kishimoto, T. (1997) Structure and function of a new STAT-induced STAT inhibitor. Nature , 387 , 924-929.

Nakagawa, K. and Yokosawa, H. (2002) PIAS3 induces SUMO-1 modification and transcriptional repression of IRF-1. FEBS Letters , 530 , 204-208.

Nakamura, M.C., Niemi, E.C., Fisher, M.J., Shultz, L.D., Seaman, W.E. and Ryan, J.C. (1997) Mouse Ly-49A interrupts early signaling events in natural killer cell cytotoxicity and functionally associates with the SHP-1 tyrosine phosphatase. Journal of Experimental Medicine , 185 , 673-684.

Nandan, D., Lo, R. and Reiner, N.E. (1999) Activation of phosphotyrosine phosphatase activity attenuates mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling and inhibits c-FOS and nitric oxide synthase expression in macrophages infected with Leishmania donovani . Infection and Immunity , 67 , 4055-4063.

Nandan, D. and Reiner, N.E. (1995) Attenuation of gamma interferon-induced tyrosine phosphorylation in mononuclear phagocytes infected with Leishmania donovani : selective inhibition of signaling through Janus kinases and Stat1. Infection and Immunity , 63 , 4495-4500.

Nandan, D., Yi, T., Lopez, M., Lai, C. and Reiner, N.E. (2002) Leishmania EF-1α activates the Src homology 2 domain containing tyrosine phosphatase SHP-1 leading to macrophage deactivation. Journal of Biological Chemistry , 277 , 50190-50197.

Nathan, C. and Xie, Q.W. (1994) Regulation of biosynthesis of nitric oxide. The Journal of Biological Chemistry , 269 , 13725-13728.

Newman, S.L., Mikus, L.K. and Tucci, M.A. (1991) Differential requirements for cellular cytoskeleton in human macrophage complement receptor- and Fc receptor-mediated phagocytosis. Journal of Immunology , 146 , 967-974.

Newton, A.C. (1997) Regulation of protein kinase C. Current Opinion in Cell Biology , 9 , 161-167.

Nicholson, S., Bonecini-Almeida, M.d., Lapa e Silva, J.R., Nathan, C., Xie, Q.W., Mumford, R.J., Weidner, R., Calaycay, J., Geng, J. and Boechat, N. (1996) Inducible nitric oxide synthase in pulmonary alveolar macrophages from patients with tuberculosis. Journal of Experimental Medicine , 183 , 2293.

Nicholson, S.E., Willson, T.A., Farley, A., Starr, R., Zhang, J.G., Baca, M., Alexander, W.S., Metcalf, D., Hilton, D.J. and Nicola, N.A. (1999) Mutational analyses of the SOCS proteins suggest a dual domain requirement but distinct mechanisms for inhibition of LIF and IL-6 signal transduction. The Embo Journal , 18 , 375-385.

Ohashi, K., Burkart, V., Flohe, S. and Kolb, H. (2000) Cutting edge: heat shock protein 60 is a putative endogenous ligand of the toll-like receptor-4 complex. Journal of Immunology , 164 , 558-561.

Ohmori, Y., Schreiber, R.D. and Hamilton, T.A. (1997) Synergy between interferon-gamma and tumor necrosis factor-alpha in transcriptional activation is mediated by cooperation between signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 and nuclear factor kappaB. The Journal of Biological Chemistry , 272 , 14899-14907.

Olcese, L., Lang, P., Vély, F., Cambiaggi, A., Marguet, D., Bléry, M., Hippen, K.L., Biassoni, R., Moretta, A., Moretta, L., Cambier, J.C. and Vivier, E. (1996) Human and mouse killer-cell inhibitory receptors recruit PTP1C and PTP1D protein tyrosine phosphatases. Journal of Immunology , 156 , 4531-4534.

Olds, G.R., Ellner, J.J., Kearse, L.A., Kazura, J.W. and Mahmoud, A.A. (1980) Role of arginase in killing of schistosomula of Schistosoma mansoni. The Journal of Experimental Medicine , 151 , 1557-1562.

Olivier, M. (1996) Modulation of Host Cell Intracellular Ca2+. Parasitology Today , 12 , 145-150.

Olivier, M., Baimbridge, K.G. and Reiner, N.E. (1992a) Stimulus-response coupling in monocytes infected with Leishmania . Attenuation of calcium transients is related to defective agonist-induced accumulation of inositol phosphates. Journal of Immunology , 148 , 1188-1196.

Olivier, M., Brownsey, R.W. and Reiner, N.E. (1992b) Defective stimulus-response coupling in human monocytes infected with Leishmania donovani is associated with altered activation and translocation of protein kinase C. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America , 89 , 7481-7485.

Olivier, M., Racette, N., Blanchette, J., Matte, C., Kaur, H., Hardy, I., Marquis, J.-F. and Forget, G. (2003) Role of host phosphotyrosine phosphatase SHP-1 in the development of leishmaniasis. Journal of Parasitology , 89 (Suppl.) , S169-S173.

Olivier, M., Romero-Gallo, B.J., Matte, C., Blanchette, J., Posner, B.I., Tremblay, M.J. and Faure, R. (1998) Modulation of interferon-gamma-induced macrophage activation by phosphotyrosine phosphatases inhibition. Effect on murine Leishmaniasis progression. Journal of Biological Chemistry , 273 , 13944-13949.

Olivier, M. and Tanner, C.E. (1987) Susceptibilities of macrophage populations to infection in vitro by Leishmania donovani . Infection and Immunity , 55 , 467-471.

Olobo, J.O., Anjili, C.O., Gicheru, M.M., Mbati, P.A., Kariuki, T.M., Githure, J.I., Koech, D.K. and McMaster, W.R. (1995) Vaccination of vervet monkeys against cutaneous leishmaniosis using recombinant Leishmania ‘major surface glycoprotein’ (gp63). Veterinary Parasitology , 60 , 199–212.

Ono, K. and Han, J. (2000) The p38 signal transduction pathway: activation and function. Cellular Signalling , 12 , 1-13.

O'Rourke, L. and Shepherd, P.R. (2002) Biphasic regulation of extracellular-signal-regulated protein kinase by leptin in macrophages: role in regulating STAT3 Ser727 phosphorylation and DNA binding. The Biochemical Journal , 364 , 875-879.

O'Shea, J.J., Gadina, M. and Schreiber, R.D. (2002) Cytokine signaling in 2002: new surprises in the Jak/Stat pathway. Cell , 109 Suppl , S121-S131.

Oshima, K., Ruhul Amin, A.R.M., Suzuki, A., Hamaguchi, M. and Matsuda, S. (2002) SHPS-1, a multifunctional transmembrane glycoprotein. FEBS Letters , 519 , 1-7.

Paling, N.R. and Welham, M.J. (2002) Role of the protein tyrosine phosphatase SHP-1 (Src homology phosphatase-1) in the regulation of interleukin-3-induced survival, proliferation and signaling. Biochemical Journal , 368 , 885-894.

Pamer, E. and Cresswell, P. (1998) Mechanisms of MHC class I-restricted antigen processing. Annual Review of Immunology , 16 , 323-358.

Pan, J., Burgher, K.L., Szczepanik, A.M. and Ringheim, G.E. (1996) Tyrosine phosphorylation of inducible nitric oxide synthase: implications for potential post-translational regulation. Biochemical Journal , 314 ( Pt 3) , 889-894.

Panaro, M.A., Brandonisio, O., Sisto, M., Acquafredda, A., Leogrande, D., Fumarola, L. and Mitolo, V. (2001) Nitric oxide production by Leishmania-infected macrophages and modulation by prostaglandin E2. Clinical and Experimental Medecine , 1 , 137-143.

Pani, G., Fischer, K.D., Mlinaric-Rascan, I. and Siminovitch, K.A. (1996) Signaling capacity of the T cell antigen receptor is negatively regulated by the PTP1C tyrosine phosphatase. Journal of Experimental Medicine , 184 , 839-852.

Papadopoulou, B., Roy, G., Breton, M., Kundig, C., Dumas, C., Fillion, I., Singh, A.K., Olivier, M. and Ouellette, M. (2002) Reduced infectivity of a Leishmania donovani biopterin transporter genetic mutant and its use as an attenuated strain for vaccination. Infection and Immunity , 70 , 62-68.

Paulson, R.F., Vesely, S., Siminovitch, K.A. and Bernstein, A. (1996) Signalling by the W/Kit receptor tyrosine kinase is negatively regulated in vivo by the protein tyrosine phosphatase Shp1. Nature Genetics , 13 , 309-315.

Pawson, T. (1995) Protein modules and signalling networks. Nature , 373 , 573-580.

Pei, D., Lorenz, U., Klingmüller, U., Neel, B.G. and Walsh, C.T. (1994) Intramolecular regulation of protein tyrosine phosphatase SH-PTP1: A new function for Src homology 2 domains. Biochemistry , 33 , 15483-15493.

Pei, D., Neel, B.G. and Walsh, C.T. (1993) Overexpression, purification, and characterization of SHPTP1, a Src homology 2-containing protein-tyrosine-phosphatase. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America , 90 , 1092-1096.

Pei, D., Wang, J. and Walsh, C.T. (1996) Differential functions of the two Src homology 2 domains in protein tyrosine phosphatase SH-PTP1. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science of the United States of America , 93 , 1141-1145.

Peiser, L. and Gordon, S. (2001) The function of scavenger receptors expressed by macropages and their role in the regulation of inflammation. Microbes and Infection , 3 , 149-159.

Pervin, S., Singh, R. and Chaudhuri, G. (2001) Nitric oxide-induced cytostasis and cell cycle arrest of a human breast cancer cell line (MDA-MB-231): potential role of cyclin D1. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America , 98 , 3583-3588.

Piacenza, L., Peluffo, G. and Radi, R. (2001) L-arginine-dependent suppression of apoptosis in Trypanosoma cruzi: contribution of the nitric oxide and polyamine pathways. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America , 98 , 7301-7306.

Piedrafita, D., Proudfoot, L., Nikolaev, A.V., Xu, D., Sands, W., Feng, G.J., Thomas, E., Brewer, J., Ferguson, M.A., Alexander, J. and Liew, F.Y. (1999) Regulation of macrophage IL-12 synthesis by Leishmania phosphoglycans. European Journal of Immunology , 29 , 235-244.

Pimenta, P.F., Saraiva, E.M., Rowton, E., Modi, G.B., Garraway, L.A., Beverley, S.M., Turco, S.J. and Sacks, D.L. (1994) Evidence that the vectorial competence of phlebotomine sand flies for different species of Leishmania is controlled by structural polymorphisms in the surface lipophosphoglycan. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America , 91 , 9155-9156.

Pimenta, P.F., Turco, S.J., McConville, M.J., Lawyer, P.G., Perkins, P.V. and Sacks, D.L. (1992) Stage-specific adhesion of Leishmania promastigotes to the sandfly midgut. Science , 256 , 1812-1815.

Pimenta, P.F.P., Saraiva, E.B.B. and Sacks, D.L. (1991) The comparative fine structure and surface glycoconjugate expression of three life stages of Leishmania major . Experimental Parasitology , 72 , 191-204.

Pinto, M.C., Campbell-Lendrum, D.H., Lozovei, A.L., Teodoro, U. and Davies, C.R. (2001) Phlebotomine sandfly responses to carbon dioxide and human odour in the field. Medical and Veterinary Entomology , 15 , 132-139.

Pizzuto, M., Piazza, M. and Senese, D. (2001) Role of PCR in diagnosis and prognosis of visceral leishmaniasis in patients coinfected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Journal of Clinical Microbiology , 39 , 357–361.

Plaksin, D., Baeuerle, P.A. and Eisenbach, L. (1993) KBF1 (p50 NF-kappa B homodimer) acts as a repressor of H-2Kb gene expression in metastatic tumor cells. The Journal of Experimental Medicine , 177 , 1651-1662.

Plant, J.E., Blackwell, J.M., O'Brien, A.D., Bradley, D.J. and Glynn, A.A. (1982) Are the Lsh and Ity disease resistance genes at one locus on mouse chromosome 1? Nature , 297 , 510-511.

Plutzky, J., Neel, B.G., Rosenberg, R.D., Eddy, R.L., Byers, M.G., Jani Sait, S. and Shows, T.B. (1992) Chromosomal localization of an SH2-containing tyrosine phosphatase (PTPN6). Genomics , 13 , 869-872.

Porcelli, S.A., Segelke, W., Sugita, M., Wilson, I.A. and Brenner, M.B. (1998) The CD1 family of lipid antigen-presenting molecules. Immunology Today , 19 , 362-368.

Pouysségur, J., Volmat, V. and Lenormand, P. (2002) Fidelity and spatio-temporal control in MAP kinase (ERKs) signalling. Biochemical Pharmacology , 64 , 755-763.

Prina, E., Jouanne, C., de Souza Lao, S., Szabo, A., Guillet, J.G. and Antoine, J.C. (1993) Antigen presentation capacity of murine macrophages infected with Leishmania amazonensis amastigotes. Journal of Immunology , 151 , 2050-2061.

Privé, C. and Descoteaux, A. (2000) Leishmania donovani promastigotes evade the activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases p38, c-Jun N-terminal kinase, and extracellular signal-regulated kinase-1/2 during infection of naive macrophages. European Journal of Immunology , 30 , 2235-2244.

Proudfoot, L., Nikolaev, A.V., Feng, G.J., Wei, W.Q., Ferguson, M.A., Brimacombe, J.S. and Liew, F.Y. (1996) Regulation of the expression of nitric oxide synthase and leishmanicidal activity by glycoconjugates of Leishmania lipophosphoglycan in murine macrophages. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America , 93 , 10984-10989.

Proudfoot, L., O'Donnell, C.A. and Liew, F.Y. (1995a) Glycoinositolphospholipids of Leishmania major inhibit nitric oxide synthesis and reduce leishmanicidal activity in murine macrophages. European Journal of Immunology , 25 , 745-750.

Proudfoot, L., Schneider, P., Ferguson, M.A.J. and McConville, M.J. (1995b) Biosynthesis of the glycolipid anchor of lipophosphoglycan and the structurally related glycoinositol phospholipids from Leishmania major . Biochemical Journal , 308 , 45-55.

Puentes, S.M., Da Silva, R.P., Sacks, D.L., Hammer, C.H. and Joiner, K.A. (1990) Serum resistance of metacyclic stage Leishmania major promastigotes is due to release of C5b-9. Journal of Immunology , 145 , 4311-4316.

Puentes, S.M., Dwyer, D.M., Bates, P.A. and Joiner, K.A. (1989) Binding and release of C3 from Leishmania donovani promastigotes during incubation in normal human serum. Journal of Immunology , 143 , 3743-3749.

Racoosin, E.L. and Beverley, S.M. (1997) Leishmania major : promastigotes induce expression of a subset of chemokine genes in murine macrophages. Experimental Parasitology , 85 , 283-295.

Ram, P.A. and Waxman, D.J. (1997) Interaction of growth hormone-activated STATs with SH2-containing phophotyrosine phosphatase SHP-1 and nuclear JAK2 tyrosine kinase. Journal of Biological Chemistry , 272 , 17694-17702.

Rameh, L.E. and Cantley, L.C. (1999) The role of phosphoinositide 3-kinase lipid products in cell function. Journal of Biological Chemistry , 274 , 8347-8350.

Rao, K.M. (2001) MAP kinase activation in macrophages. Journal of Leukocyte Biology , 69 , 3-10.

Ravetch, J.V. (1994) Fc receptors: rubor redux. Cell , 78 , 553-560.

Ravetch, J.V. (1997) Fc receptors. Current Opinion in Immunology , 9 , 121-125.

Ray, M., Gam, A.A., Boykins, R.A. and Kenney, R.T. (2000) Inhibition of interferon-γ signaling by Leishmania donovani . Journal of Infectious Diseases , 181 , 1121-1128.

Reiner, N.E. (1987) Parasite accessory cell interactions in murine leishmaniasis. I. Evasion and stimulus-dependent suppression of the macrophage interleukin 1 response by Leishmania donovani. Journal of Immunology , 138 , 1919-1925.

Reiner, N.E. and Malemud, C.J. (1984) Arachidonic acid metabolism in murine leishmaniasis ( Donovani ): ex-vivo evidence for increased cyclooxygenase and 5-lipoxygenase activity in spleen cells. Cellular Immunology , 88 , 501-510.

Reiner, N.E. and Malemud, C.J. (1985) Arachidonic acid metabolism by murine peritoneal macrophages infected with Leishmania donovani: in vitro evidence for parasite-induced alterations in cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase pathways. Journal of Immunology , 134 , 556-563.

Reiner, N.E., Ng, W., Ma, T. and McMaster, W.R. (1988) Kinetics of gamma interferon binding and induction of major histocompatibility complex class II mRNA in Leishmania-infected macrophages. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America , 85 , 4330-4334.

Reiner, N.E., Ng, W. and McMaster, W.R. (1987) Parasite-accessory cell interactions in murine leishmaniasis. II. Leishmania donovani suppresses macrophage expression of class I and class II major histocompatibility complex gene products. Journal of Immunology , 138 , 1926-1932.

Reiner, N.E., Ng, W., Wilson, C.B., McMaster, W.R. and Burchett, S.K. (1990) Modulation of in vitro monocyte cytokine responses to Leishmania donovani . Interferon-gamma prevents parasite-induced inhibition of interleukin 1 production and primes monocytes to respond to Leishmania by producing both tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin 1. Journal of Clinical Investigation , 85 , 1914-1924.

Reiner, S.L. and Locksley, R.M. (1995) The regulation of immunity to Leishmania major . Annual Reviews in Immunology , 13 , 151-177.

Reiner, S.L., Zheng, S., Wang, Z.E., Stowring, L. and Locksley, R.M. (1994) Leishmania promastigotes evade interleukin 12 (IL-12) induction by macrophages and stimulate a broad range of cytokines from CD4+ T cells during initiation of infection. Journal of Experimental Medicine , 179 , 447-456.

Rittig, M.G. and Bogdan, C. (2000) Leishmania -host-cell interactions: Complexities and alternative views. Parasitology Today , 16 , 292-297.

Rivier, D., Bovay, P., Shah, R., Didisheim, S. and Mauel, J. (1999) Vaccination against Leishmania major in a CBA mouse model of infection: role of adjuvants and mechanism of protection. Parasite Immunology , 21 , 461–473.

Rivier, D., Shah, R., Bovay, P. and Mauel, J. (1993) Vaccine development against cutaneous leishmaniasis. Subcutaneous administration of radioat-tenuated parasites protects CBA mice against virulent Leishmania major challenge. Parasite Immunology , 15 , 75–84.

Roach, T.I., Slater, S.E., White, L.S., Zhang, X., Majerus, P.W., Brown, E.J. and Thomas, M.L. (1998) The protein tyrosine phosphatase SHP-1 regulates integrin-mediated adhesion of macrophages. Current Biology , 8 , 1035-1038.

Roberts, L.S. and Janovy, J.J. (2000) Gerald D. Schmidt & Larry S. Roberts' Foundations of Parasitology . McGraw-Hill Higher Education, Boston.

Robertson, L.M., Kerppola, T.K., Vendrell, M., Luk, D., Smeyne, R.J., Bocchiaro, C., Morgan, J.I. and Curran, T. (1995) Regulation of c-fos expression in transgenic mice requires multiple interdependent transcription control elements. Neuron , 14 , 241-252.

Robey, E. and Allison, J.P. (1995) T-cell activation: integration of signals from the antigen receptor and costimulatory molecules. Immunology Today , 16 , 306-310.

Robinson, M.J. and Cobb, M.H. (1997) Mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways. Current Opinion in Cell Biology , 9 , 180-186.

Rodrigues, V., Santana da Silva, J. and Campos Neto, A. (1998) Transforming growth factor beta and immunosuppression in experimental visceral leishmaniasis. Infection and Immunity , 66 , 1233-1236.

Roman, V., Dugas, N., Abadie, A., Amirand, C., Zhao, H., Dugas, B. and Kolb, J.P. (1997) Characterization of a constitutive type III nitric oxide synthase in human U937 monocytic cells: stimulation by soluble CD23. Immunology , 91 , 643-648.

Rosenberger, S.F., Finch, J.S., Gupta, A. and Bowden, G.T. (1999) Extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2-mediated phosphorylation of JunD and FosB is required for okadaic acid-induced activator protein 1 activation. Journal of Biological Chemistry , 274 , 1124-1130.

Rothwarf, D.M. and Karin, M. (1999) The NF-kappa B activation pathway: a paradigm in information transfer from membrane to nucleus., 1999 , RE1.

Rousseau, D., Demartino, S., Anjuère, F., Ferrua, B., Fragaki, K., Le Fichoux, Y. and Kubar, J. (2001) Sustained parasite burden in the spleen of Leishmania infantum -infected BALB/c mice is accompanied by expression of MCP-1 transcripts and lack of protection against challenge. European Cytokine Network , 12 , 340-347.

Russell, D.G. and Alexander, J. (1988) Effective immunization against cutaneous leishmaniasis with defined membrane antigens reconstituted into liposomes. Journal of Immunology , 140 , 1274–1279.

Russo, D.M., Burns, J.M.J., Carvalho, E.M., Armitage, R.J., Grabstein, K.H., Button, L.L., McMaster, W.R. and Reed, S.G. (1991) Human T cell responses to gp63, a surface antigen of Leishmania . Journal of Immunology , 147 .

Sachdev, S., Bruhn, L., Sieber, H., Pichler, A., Melchior, F. and Grosschedl, R. (2001) PIASy, a nuclear matrix-associated SUMO E3 ligase, represses LEF1 activity by sequestration into nuclear bodies. Genes & Development , 15 , 3088-3103.

Sacks, D. (2001) Leishmania-sand fly interactions controlling species-specific vector competence. CELLULAR MICROBIOLOGY , 3 , 189 - 196.

Sacks, D. and Kamhawi, S. (2001) Molecular aspects of parasite-vector and vector-host interactions in Leishmaniasis. Annual Reviews in Microbiology , 55 , 453-483.

Sacks, D.L., Modi, G., Rowton, E., Spath, G., Epstein, L., Turco, S.J. and Beverley, S.M. (2000) The role of phosphoglycans in Leishmania -sand fly interactions. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America , 97 , 406-411.

Saha, B., Das, G., Vohra, H., Ganguly, N.K. and Mishra, G.C. (1995) Macrophage-T cell interaction in experimental visceral leishmaniasis: failure to express costimulatory molecules on Leishmania -infected macrophages and its implication in the suppression of cell mediated immunity. European Journal of Immunology , 25 , 2492-2498.

Saharinen, P., Takaluoma, K. and Silvennoinen, O. (2000) Regulation of the Jak2 tyrosine kinase by its pseudokinase domain. Molecular and Cellular Biology , 20 , 3387-3395.

Salotra, P., Sreenivas, G. and Pogue, G.P. (2001) Development of a species-specific PCR assay for detection of Leishmania donovani in clinical samples from patients with kala-azar and post-kala- azar dermal leishmaniasis. Journal of Clinical Microbiology , 39 , 849–854.

Sapetschnig, A., Rischitor, G., Braun, H., Doll, A., Schergaut, M., Melchior, F. and Suske, G. (2002) Transcription factor Sp3 is silenced through SUMO modification by PIAS1. EMBO Journal , 21 , 5206-5215.

Sasaki, A., Yasukawa, H., Shouda, T., Kitamura, T., Dikic, I. and Yoshimura, A. (2000) CIS3/SOCS-3 suppresses erythropoietin (EPO) signaling by binding the EPO receptor and JAK2. The Journal of Biological Chemistry , 275 , 29338-29347.

Sasaki, T., Sasaki-Irie, J. and Penninger, J.M. (2001) New insights into the transmembrane protein tyrosine phosphatase CD45. The International Journal of Biochemistry & Cell Biology , 33 , 1041-1046.

Sastry, K. and Ezekowitz, R.A. (1993) Collectins: pattern recognition molecules involved in first line host defense. Current Opinion in Immunology , 5 , 59-66.

Sauer, B. (1998) Inducible gene targeting in mice using the Cre/lox system. Methods , 14 , 381-392.

Schaeffer, H.J., Catling, A.D., Eblen, S.T., Collier, L.S., Krauss, A. and Weber, M.J. (1998) MP1: a MEK binding partner that enhances enzymatic activation of the MAP kinase cascade. Science , 281 , 1668-1671.

Scharton-Kersten, T., Afonso, L.C.C., Wysocka, M., Trinchieri, G. and Scott, P. (1995) IL-12 is required for natural killer cell activation and subsequent Thelper 1 cell development in experimental leishmaniasis. Journal of Immunology , 154 , 5320-5330.

Scherer, D.C., Brockman, J.A., Chen, Z., Maniatis, T. and Ballard, D.W. (1995) Signal-induced degradation of I kappa B alpha requires site-specific ubiquitination. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America , 92 , 11259-11263.

Schindler, C. and Darnell, J.E.J. (1995) Transcriptional responses to polypeptide ligands: the JAK-STAT pathway. Annual Review Of Biochemistry , 64 , 621-651.

Schlein, Y., Jacobson, R.L. and Shlomai, J. (1991) Chitinase secreted by Leishmania functions in the sandfly vector. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Ser. B. , 245 , 121-126.

Schmidt, D. and Müller, S. (2002) Members of the PIAS family act as SUMO ligases for c-jun and p53 and repress p53 activity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science of the United States of America , 99 , 2872-2877.

Schneider, P., Rosat, J.-P., Bouvier, J., Louis, J. and Bordier, C. (1992) Leishmania major : differential regulation of the surface metalloprotease in amastigote and promastigote stages. Experimental Parasitology , 75 , 196-206.

Scianimanico, S., Desrosiers, M., Dermine, J.F., Meresse, S., Descoteaux, A. and Desjardins, M. (1999) Impaired recruitment of the small GTPase rab7 correlates with the inhibition of phagosome maturation by Leishmania donovani promastigotes. Cellular Microbiology , 1 , 19-32.

Seaman, J., Mercer, A.J., Sondorp, H.E. and Herwaldt, B.L. (1996) Epidemic visceral leishmaniasis in southern Sudan:

treatment of severely debilitated patients under

wartime conditions and with limited resources. Annals of Internal Medicine , 124 , 664–672.

Seay, M.B., Heard, P.L. and Chaudhuri, G. (1996) Surface Zn-proteinase as a molecule for defense of Leishmania mexicana amazonensis promastigotes against cytolysis inside macrophage phagolysosomes. Infection and Immunity , 64 , 5129-5137.

Sen, R. and Baltimore, D. (1986) Multiple nuclear factors interact with the immunoglobulin enhancer sequences. Cell , 46 , 705-716.

Sengelov, H. (1995) Complement receptors in neutrophils. Critical Reviews in Immunology , 15 , 107-131.

Serebryakov, V.A., Karakhodznaeva, S.K.H. and Dzhumaev, M.D. (1972) Effect of leishmanial vaccinations on the dynamics of immunity to diphteria in conditions of secondary revaccination with adsorbed pertussis-diphteria-tetanus vaccine. Med. Parasit. Mosk. , 41 , 303–309.

Seufert, W. and Jentsch, S. (1990) Ubiquitin-conjugating enzymes UBC4 and UBC5 mediate selective degradation of short-lived and abnormal proteins. EMBO Journal , 9 , 543–550.

Sherwood, J.A., Gachihi, G.S., Muigai, R.K. and al., e. (1994) Phase 2 efficacy trial of an oral 8-aminoquinoline (WR6026) for treatment of visceral leishmaniasis. Clinical Infectious Diseases , 19 , 1034–1039.

Shi, Z.Q., Lu, W. and Feng, G.S. (1998) The Shp-2 tyrosine phophatase has opposite effects in medating the activation of extracellular signal-regulated and c-Jun NH2-terminal mitogen-activated protein kinases. Journal of Biological Chemistry , 273 , 4904-4908.

Shimizu, Y. and Hunt, S.W. (1996) Regulating integrin-mediated adhesion: one more function for PI 3-kinase? Immunology Today , 17 , 565-573.

Shoda, L.K., Kegerreis, K.A., Suarez, C.E., Roditi, I., Corral, R.S., Bertot, G.M., Norimine, J. and Brown, W.C. (2001) DNA from protozoan parasites Babesia bovis , Trypanosoma cruzi , and T. brucei is mitogenic for B lymphocytes and stimulates macrophage expression of interleukin-12, tumor necrosis factor alpha, and nitric oxide. Infection and Immunity , 69 , 2162-2171.

Shuai, K. (2000) Modulation of STAT signaling by STAT-interacting proteins. Oncogene , 19 , 2638-2644.

Shultz, L.D., Coman, D.R., Bailey, C.L., Beamer, W.G. and Sidman, C.L. (1984) Viable motheaten, a new allele at the motheaten locus. I. Pathology. American Journal of Pathology , 116 , 179-192.

Shultz, L.D. and Green, M.C. (1976) Motheaten, an immunodeficient mutant of the mouse. II. Depressed immune competence and elevated serum immunoglobulins. Journal Of Immunology , 116 , 936-943.

Shultz, L.D., Rajan, T.V. and Greiner, D.L. (1997) Severe defects in immunity and hematopoiesis caused by SHP-1 protein-tyrosine-phosphatase deficiency. Trends in Biotechnology , 15 , 302-307.

Shultz, L.D., Schweitzer, P.A., Rajan, T.V., Yi, T., Ihle, J.N., Matthews, R.J., Thomas, M.L. and Beier, D.R. (1993) Mutations at the murine motheaten locus are within the hematopoietic cell protein-tyrosine phosphatase (Hcph) gene. Cell , 73 , 1445-1454.

Shultz, L.D. and Sidman, C.L. (1987) Genetically determined murine models of immunodeficiency. Annual Review of Immunology , 5 , 367-403.

Sidman, C.L., Marshall, J.D. and Allen, R.D. (1989) Murine viable motheaten mutation reveals a gene critical to the development of both B and T lymphocytes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America , 86 , 6279-6282.

Sidman, C.L., Marshall, J.D., Masiello, N.C., Roths, J.B. and Shultz, L.D. (1984) Novel B-cell maturation factor from spontaneously autoimmune viable motheaten mice. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science of the United States of America , 81 , 7199-7202.

Sidman, C.L., Shultz, L.D. and Evans, R. (1985) A serum-derived molecule from autoimmune viable motheaten mice potentiates the action of a B cell maturation factor. Journal of Immunology , 135 , 870-872.

Sidman, C.L., Shultz, L.D., Hardy, R.R., Hayakawa, K. and Herzenberg, L.A. (1986) Production of immunoglobulin isotypes by Ly-1+ B cells in viable motheaten and normal mice. Science , 232 , 1423-1425.

Sidman, C.L., Shultz, L.D. and Unanue, E.R. (1978) The mouse mutant motheaten. II. Functional studies of the immune system. Journal of Immunology , 121 , 2399-2404.

Siebenlist, U., Franzoso, G. and Brown, K. (1994) Structure, regulation and function of NF-kappa. Annual Review of Cell Biology , 10 , 405-455.

Sjölander, A., Baldwin, T.M., Curtis, J.M. and Handman, E. (1998) Induction of a Th1 immune response and simultaneous lack of activation of a Th2 response is required for generation of immunity to leishmaniasis. Journal of Immunology , 160 , 3949–3957.

Skamene, E., Gros, P., Forget, A., Kongshavn, P.A., St-Charles, C. and Taylor, B.A. (1982) Genetic regulation of resistance to intracellular pathogens. Nature , 297 , 506-509.

Skamene, E., Schurr, E. and Gros, P. (1998) Infection genomics: Nramp1 as a major determinant of natural resistance to intracellular infections. Annual Review of Medicine , 49 , 275-287.

Smelt, S.C., Cotterell, S.E.J., Engwerda, C.R. and Kaye, P.M. (2000) B cell-deficient mice are highly resistant to Leishmania donovani infection, but develop neutrophil-mediated tissue pathology. Journal of Immunology , 164 , 3681-3688.

Somani, A.K., Bignon, J.S., Mills, G.B., Siminovitch, K.A. and Branch, D.R. (1997) Src kinase activity is regulated by the SHP-1 protein-tyrosine phosphatase. Journal of Biological Chemistry , 272 , 21113-21119.

Songyang, Z., Shoelson, S.E., Chaudhuri, M., Gish, G., Pawson, T., Haser, W.G., King, F., Roberts, T., Ratnofsky, S., Lechleider, R.J. and al, e. (1993) SH2 domains recognize specific phosphopeptide sequences. Cell , 72 , 767-778.

Soong, L., Xu, J.C., Grewal, I.S., Kima, P., Sun, J., Longley, B.J., Ruddle, N.H., McMahon-Pratt, D. and Flavell, R.A. (1996) Disruption of CD40-CD40 ligand interactions results in an enhanced susceptibility to Leishmania amazonensis infection. Immunity , 4 , 263-273.

Sorensen, A.L., Hey, A.S. and Kharazmi, A. (1994) Leishmania major surface protease gp63 interferes with the function of human monocytes and neutrophils in vitro. APMIS , 102 , 265-271.

Spiecker, M., Darius, H., Kaboth, K., Hubner, F. and Liao, J.K. (1998) Differential regulation of endothelial cell adhesion molecule expression by nitric oxide donors and antioxidants. Journal of Leukocyte Biology , 63 , 732-739.

Stahl, P.D. and Ezekowitz, R.A. (1998) The mannose receptor is a pattern recognition receptor involved in host defense. Current Opinion in Immunology , 10 , 50-55.

Stambolic, V., Suzuki, A., de la Pompa, J.L., Brothers, G.M., Mirtsos, C., Sasaki, T., Ruland, J., Penninger, J.M., Siderovski, D.P. and Mak, T.W. (1998) Negative regulation of PKB/Akt-dependent cell

survival by the tumor suppressor PTEN. Cell , 95 , 29-39.

Starr, R., Metcalf, D., Elefanty, A.G., Brysha, M., Willson, T.A., Nicola, N.A., Hilton, D.J. and Alexander, W.S. (1998) Liver degeneration and lymphoid deficiencies in mice lacking suppressor of cytokine signaling-1. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America , 95 , 14395-14399.

Starr, R., Willson, T.A., Viney, E.M., Murray, L.J., Rayner, J.R., Jenkins, B.J., Gonda, T.J., Alexander, W.S., Metcalf, D., Nicola, N.A. and Hilton, D.J. (1997) A family of cytokine-inducible inhibitors of signalling. Nature , 387 , 917-921.

Stenger, S., Thüring, H., Röllinghoff, M. and Bogdan, C. (1994) Tissue expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase is closely associated with resistance to Leishmania major . Journal of Experimental Medicine , 180 , 783-793.

Stoiber, D., Kovarik, P., Cohney, S., Johnston, J.A., Steinlein, P. and Decker, T. (1999) Lipopolysaccharide induces in macrophages the synthesis of the suppressor of cytokine signaling 3 and suppresses signal transduction in response to the activating factor IFN-gamma. Journal of Immunology , 163 , 2640-2647.

Stuehr, D. (1999) Mammalian nitric oxide synthases. Biochemical and Biophysical Acta , 1411 , 217-230.

Sundar, S. (2001) Drug resistance in Indian visceral leishmaniasis. Tropical Medicine and International Health , 6 , 849–854.

Sundar, S., Reed, S.G., Singh, V.P., Kumar, P.C. and Murray, H.W. (1998) Rapid accurate field diagnosis of Indian visceral leishmaniasis. Lancet , 351 , 563–565.

Sutterwala, F.S., Noel, G.J., Clynes, R. and Mosser, D.M. (1997) Selective suppression of interleukin-12 induction after macrophage receptor ligation. Journal of Experimental Medicine , 185 , 1977-1985.

Sutterwala, F.S., Noel, G.J., Salgame, P. and Mosser, D.M. (1998) Reversal of proinflammatory responses by ligating the macrophage Fcgamma receptor type I. Journal of Experimental Medicine , 188 , 217-222.

Suzuki, E., Tanaka, A.K., Toledo, M.S., Takahashi, H.K. and Straus, A.H. (2002) Role of beta-D-galactofuranose in Leishmania major macrophage invasion. Infection and Immunity , 70 , 6592-6596.

Tacchini-Cottier, F., Zweifel, C., Belkaid, Y., Mukankundiye, C., Vasei, M., Launois, P., Milon, G. and Louis, J.A. (2000) An immunomodulatory function for neutrophils during the induction of a CD4+ Th2 response in BALB/c mice infected with Leishmania major . Journal of Immunology , 165 , 2628-2636.

Takaoka, A., Tanaka, N., Mitani, Y., Miyazaki, T., Fujii, H., Sato, M., Kovarik, P., Decker, T., Schlessinger, J. and Taniguchi, T. (1999) Protein tyrosine kinase Pyk2 mediates the Jak-dependent activation of MAPK and Stat1 in IFN-gamma, but not IFN-alpha, signaling. EMBO Journal , 18 , 2480-2488.

Talamas-Rohana, P., Wright, S.D., Lennartz, M.R. and Russell, D.G. (1990) Lipophosphoglycan from Leishmania mexicana promastigotes binds to members of the CR3, p150,95 and LFA-1 family of leukocyte integrins. Journal of Immunology , 144 , 4817-4824.

Tam, F.W., Karkar, A.M., Smith, J., Yoshimura, T., Steinkasserer, A., Kurrle, R., Langner, K. and Rees, A.J. (1996) Differential expression of macrophage inflammatory protein-2 and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 in experimental glomerulonephritis. Kidney International , 49 , 715-721.

Tan, Y., Rouse, J., Zhang, A., Cariati, S., Cohen, P. and Comb, M.J. (1996) FGF and stress regulate CREB and ATF-1 via a pathway involving p38 MAP kinase and MAPKAP kinase-2. The Embo Journal , 15 , 4629-4642.

Tanoue, T., Adachi, M., Moriguchi, T. and Nishida, E. (2000) A conserved docking motif in MAP kinases common to substrates, activators and regulators. Nature Cell Biology , 2 , 110-116.

Tapley, P., Shevde, N.K., Schweitzer, P.A., Gallina, M., Christianson, S.W., Lin, I.L., Stein, R.B., Shultz, L.D., Rosen, J. and Lamb, P. (1997) Increased G-CSF responsiveness of bone marrow cells from hematopoietic cell phosphatase deficient viable motheaten mice. Experimental Hematology , 25 , 122-131.

Tayeh, A., Jalouk, L. and Madani Al Khiami, A. (1997) A cutaneous leishmaniasis control trial using pyrethroid

impregnated bednets in villages near Aleppo, Syria. WHO, Geneva, p. WHO/LEISH/97.41.

Taylor, B.S., Liu, S., Villavicencio, R.T., Ganster, R.W. and Geller, D.A. (1999) The role of protein phosphatases in the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase in the rat hepatocyte. Hepatology , 29 , 1199-1207.

Tejle, K., Magnusson, K.E. and Rasmusson, B. (2002) Phagocytosis and phagosome maturation are regulated by calcium in J774 macrophages interacting with unopsonized prey. Bioscience Reports , 22 , 529-540.

Thakur, C.P., Kanyok, T.P., Pandey, A.K., Sinha, G.P., Messick, C. and Olliaro, P. (2000) Treatment of visceral leishmaniasis with injectable paromomycin (aminosidine): an open-label randomized phase-II clinical study. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene , 94 , 432–433.

Thakur, C.P., Sinha, G.P. and Pandey, A.K. (1996) Comparison of regimens of amphotericin B deoxycholate in kala-azar. Indian Journal of Medicine Research , 103 , 259–263.

Theodos, C.M., Ribeiro, J.M. and Titus, R.G. (1991) Analysis of enhancing effect of sand fly saliva on Leishmania infection in mice. Infection and Immunity , 59 , 1592-1598.

Theodos, C.M. and Titus, R.G. (1993) Salivary gland material from the sand fly Lutzomyia longipalpis has an inhibitory effect on macrophage function in vitro. Parasite Immunology , 15 , 481-487.

Thoma-Uszynski, S., Stenger, S., Takeuchi, O., Ochoa, M.T., Engele, M., Sieling, P.A., Barnes, P.F., Rollinghoff, M., Bolcskei, P.L., Wagner, M., Akira, S., Norgard, M.V., Belisle, J.T., Godowski, P.J., Bloom, B.R. and Modlin, R.L. (2001) Induction of direct antimicrobial activity through mammalian toll-like receptors. Science , 291 , 1544-1547.

Tibbles, L.A., Ing, Y.L., Kiefer, F., Chan, J., Iscove, N., Woodgett, J.R. and Lassam, N.J. (1996) MLK-3 activates the SAPK/JNK and p38/RK pathways via SEK1 and MKK3/6. The Embo Journal , 15 , 7026-7035.

Titus, R.G., Gueiros-Filho, F.J., de Freitas, L.A. and Beverley, S.M. (1995) Development of a safe live Leishmania vaccine line by gene replacement. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science of the United States of America , 92 , 10267–10271.

Tonks, N.K. and Neel, B.G. (2001) Combinatorial control of the specificity of protein tyrosine phosphatases. Current Opinion in Cell Biology , 13 , 182-195.

Tournier, C., Whitmarsh, A.J., Cavanagh, J., Barrett, T. and Davis, R.J. (1999) The MKK7 gene encodes a group of c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase kinases. Molecular and Cellular Biology , 19 , 1569-1581.

Townley, R., Shen, S.H., Banville, D. and Ramachandran, C. (1993) Inhibiton of the activity of protein tyrosine phosphatase 1C by its SH2 domains. Biochemistry , 32 , 13414-13418.

Traenckner, E.B., Pahl, H.L., Henkel, T., Schmidt, K.N., Wilk, S. and Baeuerle, P.A. (1995) Phosphorylation of human I kappa B-alpha on serines 32 and 36 controls I kappa B-alpha proteolysis and NF-kappa B activation in response to diverse stimuli. The Embo Journal , 14 , 2876-2883.

Tridandapani, S., Siefker, K., Teillaud, J.L., Carter, J.E., Wewers, M.D. and Anderson, C.L. (2002) Regulated expression and inhibitory function of Fcgamma RIIb in human monocytic cells. The Journal of Biological Chemistry , 277 , 5082-5089.

Tripathi, A. and Gupta, C.M. (2003) Transbilayer translocation of membrane phosphatidylserine and its role in macrophage invasion in Leishmania promastigotes. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology , 128 , 1-9.

Trowbridge, I.S. and Thomas, M.L. (1994) CD45: an emerging role as a protein tyrosine phosphatase required for lymphocyte activation and development. Annual Review of Immunology , 12 , 85-116.

Tsui, H.W., Hasselblatt, K., Martin, A., Mok, S.C. and Tsui, F.W. (2002) Molecular mechanisms underlying SHP-1 gene expression. European Journal of Biochemistry , 269 , 3057-3064.

Tsui, H.W., Siminovitch, K.A., de Souza, L. and Tsui, F.W. (1993) Motheaten and viable motheaten mice have mutations in the haematopoietic cell phosphatase gene. Nature Genetics , 4 , 124-129.

Turco, S.J. (1999) Adversarial relationship between the Leishmania lipophosphoglycan and protein kinase C of host macrophages. Parasite Immunology , 21 , 597-600.

Tuyt, L.M., Dokter, W.H., Birkenkamp, K., Koopmans, S.B., Lummen, C., Kruijer, W. and Vellenga, E. (1999) Extracellular-regulated kinase 1/2, Jun N-terminal kinase, and c-Jun are involved in NF-kappa B-dependent IL-6 expression in human monocytes. Journal of Immunology , 162 , 4893-4902.

Uchida, T., Matozaki, T., Matsuda, K., Suzuki, T., Matozaki, S., Nakano, O., Wada, K., Konda, Y., Sakamoto, C. and Kasuga, M. (1993) Phorbol ester stimulates the activity of a protein tyrosine phosphatase containing SH2 domains (PTP1C) in HL-60 leukemia cells by increasing gene expression. The Journal of Biological Chemistry , 268 , 11845-11850.

Uchida, T., Matozaki, T., Noguchi, T., Yamao, T., Horita, K., Suzuki, T., Fujioka, Y., Sakamoto, C. and Kasuga, M. (1994) Insulin stimulates the phosphorylation of Tyr538 and the catalytic activity of PTP1C, a protein tyrosine phosphatase with Src homology-2 domains. Journal of Biological Chemistry , 269 , 12220-12228.

Umansky, V., Hehner, S.P., Dumont, A., Hofmann, T.G., Schirrmacher, V., Droge, W. and Schmitz, M.L. (1998) Co-stimulatory effect of nitric oxide on endothelial NF-kappaB implies a physiological self-amplifying mechanism. European Journal of Immunology , 28 , 2276-2282.

Underhill, D.M. and Ozinsky, A. (2002) Toll-like receptors: key mediators of microbe detection. Current Opinion in Immunology , 14 , 103-110.

van Furth, R. (1989) Origin and turnover of monocytes and macrophages. Current Topics in Pathology , 79 , 125-150.

Van Snik, J. (1993) Interleukin-6: An overview. Annual Review of Immunology , 8 , 253-278.

Varshavsky, A., Turner, G., Du, F. and Xie, Y. (2000) The ubiquitin system and the N-end rule pathway. Biological Chemistry , 381 , 779–789.

Verdier, F., Chrétien, S., Muller, O., Varlet, P., Yoshimura, A., Gisselbrecht, S., Lacombe, C. and Mayeux, P. (1998) Proteasomes regulate erythropoietin receptor and signal transducer and activator of transcription 5 (STAT5) activation. Possible involvement of the ubiquitinated Cis protein. Journal of Biological Chemistry , 273 , 28185-28190.

Verdier, F., Walrafen, P., Hubert, N., Chrétien, S., Gisselbrecht, S., Lacombe, C. and Mayeux, P. (2000) Proteasomes regulate the duration of erythropoietin receptor activation by controlling down-regulation of cell surface receptors. Journal of Biological Chemistry , 275 , 18375 - 18381.

Vester, B., Muller, K., Solbach, W. and Laskay, T. (1999) Early gene expression of NK cell-activating chemokines in mice resistant to Leishmania major . Infection and Immunity , 67 , 3155-3159.

Vieira, L.Q., Goldschmidt, M., Nashleanas, M., Pfeffer, K., Mak, T. and Scott, P. (1996) Mice lacking the TNF receptor p55 fail to resolve lesions caused by infection with Leishmania major , but control parasite replication. Journal of Immunology , 157 , 827-835.

von Stebut, E., Belkaid, Y., Jakob, T., Sacks, D.L. and Udey, M.C. (1998) Uptake of Leishmania major amastigotes results in activation and interleukin 12 release from murine skin-derived dendritic cells: implications for the initiation of anti- Leishmania immunity. The Journal of Experimental Medicine , 188 , 1547-1552.

Vouldoukis, I., Riveros-Moreno, V., Dugas, B., Ouaaz, F., Becherel, P., Debre, P., Moncada, S. and Mossalayi, M.D. (1995) The killing of Leishmania major by human macrophages is mediated by nitric oxide induced after ligation of the Fc epsilon RII/CD23 surface antigen. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America , 92 , 7804-7808.

Vythilingam, I., Zainal, A.R. and Hamidah, T. (1999) Laboratory evaluation of lambda-cyhalothrin a

microencapsulated formulation on mosquito nets for control of vector mosquitos. Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health , 30 , 177–183.

Walker, P.S., Scharton-Kersten, T., Rowton, E.D., Hengge, U., Bouloc, A., Udey, M.C. and Vogel, J.C. (1998) Genetic immunization with glycoprotein 63 cDNA results in a helper T cell type 1 immune response and protection in a murine model of leishmaniasis. Human Genetics Therapeutics , 9 , 1899–1907.

Wang, C., Deng, L., Hong, M., Akkaraju, G.R., Inoue, J. and Chen, Z.J. (2001) TAK1 is a ubiquitin-dependent kinase of MKK and IKK. Nature , 412 , 346-351.

Wang, L.L., Blasioli, J., Plas, D.R., Thomas, M.L. and Yokohama, W.M. (1999) Specificity of the SH2 domains of SHP-1 in the interaction with the immunoreceptor tyrosine-based inhibitory motif-bearing receptor gp49B. Journal of Immunology , 162 , 1318-1323.

Waskiewicz, A.J., Flynn, A., Proud, C.G. and Cooper, J.A. (1997) Mitogen-activated protein kinases activate the serine/threonine kinases Mnk1 and Mnk2. The Embo Journal , 16 , 1909-1920.

Wei, X.Q., Charles, I.G., Smith, A., Ure, J., Feng, G.J., Huang, F.P., Xu, D., Muller, W., Moncada, S. and Liew, F.Y. (1995) Altered immune responses in mice lacking inducible nitric oxide synthase. Nature , 375 , 408-411.

Weinheber, N., Wolfram, M., Harbecke, D. and Aebischer, T. (1998) Phagocytosis of Leishmania mexicana amastigotes by macrophages leads to a sustained suppression of IL-12 production. European Journal of Immunology , 28 , 2467-2477.

Weis, W.I., Taylor, M.E. and Drickamer, K. (1998) The C-type lectin superfamily in the immune system. Immunological Reviews , 163 , 19-34.

Wen, R., Wang, D., McKay, C., Bunting, K.D., Marine, J.C., Vanin, E.F., Zambetti, G.P., Korsmeyer, S.J., Ihle, J.N. and Cleveland, J.L. (2001) Jak3 selectively regulates Bax and Bcl-2 expression to promote T-cell development. Molecular and Cellular Biology , 21 , 678-689.

Whiteside, S.T., Ernst, M.K., LeBail, O., Laurent-Winter, C., Rice, N. and Israel, A. (1995) N- and C-terminal sequences control degradation of MAD3/I kappa B alpha in response to inducers of NF-kappa B activity. Molecular and Cellular Biology , 15 , 5339-5345.

Whitmarsh, A.J., Cavanagh, J., Tournier, C., Yasuda, J. and Davis, R.J. (1998) A mammalian scaffold complex that selectively mediates MAP kinase activation. Science , 281 , 1671-1674.

WHO, W.H.O.-. (2000) http://www.who.int/inf-fs/en/fact116.html.

WHO, W.H.O.-. (2002) http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/Documents/PEEM2/english/peem2ann3.htm.

Wick, M.J. and Ljunggren, H.G. (1999) Processing of bacterial antigens for peptide presentation on MHC class I molecules. Immunology Reviews , 172 , 153-162.

Winkler, F., Koedel, U., Kastenbauer, S. and Pfister, H.W. (2001) Differential expression of nitric oxide synthases in bacterial meningitis: role of the inducible isoform for blood-brain barrier breakdown. The Journal of Infectious Diseases , 183 , 1749-1759.

Winston, L.A. and Hunter, T.J. (1995) JAK2, Ras, and Raf are required for activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase/mitogen-activated protein kinase by growth hormone. Biological Chemistry , 270 , 30837-30840.

Woodford-Thomas, T.A., Rhodes, J.D. and Dixon, J.E. (1992) Expression of a protein tyrosine phosphatase in normal and v-src-transformed mouse 3T3 fibroblasts. Journal of Cellular Biology , 117 , 401-414.

Wright, S.D., Ramos, R.A., Tobias, P.S., Ulevitch, R.J. and Mathison, J.C. (1990) CD14, a receptor for complexes of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and LPS binding protein. Science , 249 , 1431-1433.

Xie, Z.H., Zhang, J. and Siraganian, R.P. (2000) Positive regulation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase and TNF-α production but not histamine release by SHP-1 in RBL-2H3 mast cells. Journal of Immunology , 164 , 1521-1528.

Yamada, T., Zhu, D., Saxon, A. and Zhang, K. (2002) CD45 controls interleukin-4-mediated IgE class switch recombination in human B cells through its function as a Janus kinase phosphatase. Journal of Biological Chemistry , 277 , 28830-28835.

Yang, J., Liang, X., Niu, T., Meng, W., Zhao, Z. and Zhou, G.W. (1998) Crystal structure of the catalytic domain of protein-tyrosine phosphatase SHP-1. Journal of Biological Chemistry , 273 , 28199-28207.

Yang, J., Liu, L., He, D., Song, X., Liang, X., Zhao, Z.J. and Zhou, G.W. (2003) Crystal Structure of Human Protein-tyrosine Phosphatase SHP-1. Journal of Biological Chemistry , 278 , 6516–6520.

Yang, W., Tabrizi, M. and Yi, T. (2002) A bipartite NLS at the SHP-1 C-terminus mediates cytokine-induced SHP-1 nuclear localization in cell growth control. Blood Cells, Molecules, and Diseases , 28 , 63-74.

Yasuda, J., Whitmarsh, A.J., Cavanagh, J., Sharma, M. and Davis, R.J. (1999) The JIP group of mitogen-activated protein kinase scaffold proteins. Molecular and Cellular Biology , 19 , 7245-7254.

Yasukawa, H., Misawa, H., Sakamoto, H., Masuhara, M., Sasaki, A., Wakioka, T., Ohtsuka, S., Imaizumi, T., Matsuda, T., Ihle, J.N. and Yoshimura, A. (1999) The JAK-binding protein JAB inhibits Janus tyrosine kinase activity through binding in the activation loop. The Embo Journal , 18 , 1309-1320.

Yasukawa, H., Ohishi, M., Mori, H., Murakami, M., Chinen, T., Aki, D., Hanada, T., K., T., Akira, S., Hoshijima, M., Hirano, T., Chien, K.R. and Yoshimura, A. (2003) IL-6 induces an anti-inflammatory response in the absence of SOCS3 in macrophages. Nature Immunology , 4 , 551-556.

Yeh, T.C., Dondi, E., Uze, G. and Pellegrini, S. (2000) A dual role for the kinase-like domain of the tyrosine kinase Tyk2 in interferon-α signaling. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science of the United States of America , 97 , 8991-8996.

Yeung, Y.G., Berg, K.L., Pixley, F.J., Angeletti, R.H. and Stanley, E.R. (1992) Protein tyrosine phosphatase-1C is rapidly phosphorylated in tyrosine in macrophages in response to colony stimulating factor-1. Journal of Biological Chemistry , 267 , 23447-23450.

Yeung, Y.G., Wang, Y., Einstein, D.B., Lee, P.S. and Stanley, E.R. (1998) Colony-stimulating factor-1 stimulates the formation of multimeric cytosolic complexes of signaling proteins and cytoskeletal components in macrophages. Journal of Biological Chemistry , 273 , 17128-17137.

Yi, T., Mui, A.L., Krystal, G. and Ihle, J.N. (1993) Hematopoietic cell phosphatase associates with the interleukin-3 (IL-3) receptor beta chain and down-regulates IL-3-induced tyrosine phosphorylation and mitogenesis. Molecular and Cellular Biology , 13 , 7577-7586.

Yi, T.L., Cleveland, J.L. and Ihle, J.N. (1992) Protein tyrosine phosphatase containing SH2 domains: characterization, preferential expression in hematopoietic cells, and localization to human chromosome 12p12-p13. Molecular and Cellular Biology , 12 , 836-846.

Yoshimura, A., Ohkubo, T., Kiguchi, T., Jenkins, N.A., Gilbert, D.J., Copeland, N.G., Hara, T. and Miyajima, A. (1995) A novel cytokine-inducible gene CIS encodes an SH2-containing protein that binds to tyrosine-phosphorylated interleukin 3 and erythropoietin receptors. Embo Journal , 14 , 2816-2826.

You, M., Yu, D.H. and Feng, G.S. (1999) Shp-2 tyrosine phosphatase functions as a negative regulator of the interferon-stimulated Jak/STAT pathway. Molecular and Cellular Biology , 19 , 2416-2424.

Yu, C.L. and Burakoff, S.J. (1997) Involvement of proteasomes in regulating Jak-STAT pathways upon interleukin-2 stimulation. Journal of Biological Chemistry , 272 , 14017-14020.

Yu, D.H., Qu, C.K., Henegariu, O., Lu, X. and Feng, G.S. (1998) Protein-tyrosine phosphatase Shp-2 regulates cell spreading, migration, and focal adhesion. Journal of Biological Chemistry , 273 , 21125-21131.

Yu, W.M., Hawley, T.S., Hawley, R.G. and Qu, C.K. (2002) Role of the docking protein Gab2 in beta(1)-integrin signaling pathway-mediated hematopoietic cell adhesion and migration. Blood , 99 , 2351-2359.

Zandi, E., Chen, Y. and Karin, M. (1998) Direct phosphorylation of IkappaB by IKKalpha and IKKbeta: discrimination between free and NF-kappaB-bound substrate. Science , 281 , 1360-1363.

Zhang, J., Somani, A.K. and Siminovitch, K.A. (2000a) Roles of the SHP-1 tyrosine phosphatase in the negative regulation of cell signaling. Seminars in Immunology , 12 , 361-378.

Zhang, S., Han, J., Sells, M.A., Chernoff, J., Knaus, U.G., Ulevitch, R.J. and Bokoch, G.M. (1995) Rho family GTPases regulate p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase through the downstream mediator Pak1. The Journal of Biological Chemistry , 270 , 23934-23936.

Zhang, S.Q., Kovalenko, A., Cantarella, G. and Wallach, D. (2000b) Recruitment of the IKK signalosome to the p55 TNF receptor: RIP and A20 bind to NEMO (IKKgamma) upon receptor stimulation. Immunity , 12 , 301-311.

Zhang, T., Kee, W.H., Seow, K.T., Fung, W. and Cao, X. (2000c) The coiled-coil domain of Stat3 is essential for its SH2 domain-mediated receptor binding and subsequent activation induced by epidermal growth factor and interleukin-6. Molecular and Cellular Biology , 20 , 7132-7139.

Zhang, Z., Shen, K., Lu, W. and Cole, P.A. (2003) The role of C-terminal tyrosine phosphorylation in the regulation of SHP-1 explored via expressed protein ligation. Journal of Biological Chemistry , 278 , 4668-4674.

Zhang, Z.Y. (2002) Protein tyrosine phosphatases: Structure and function, substrate specificity, and inhibitor development. Annual Reviews in Pharmacology and Toxicology , 42 , 209-234.

Zheng, X.L., Gui, Y., Sharkey, K.A. and Hollenberg, M.D. (1999) Differential induction of nitric oxide synthase in rat gastric and vascular smooth muscle tissue: distinct tissue distribution and distinctive signaling pathways. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics , 289 , 632-640.

Zhou, Y.J., Chen, M., Cusack, N.A., Kimmel, L.H., Magnuson, K.S., Boyd, J.G., Lin, W., Roberts, J.L., Lengi, A., Buckley, R.H., Geahlen, R.L., Candotti, F., Gadina, M., Changelian, P.S. and O'Shea, J.J. (2001) Unexpected effects of FERM domain mutations on catalytic activity of Jak3: structural implication for Janus kinases. Molecular Cell , 8 , 959-969.

Ziegler-Heitbrock, L., Lötzerich, M., Schaefer, A., Werner, T., Frankenberger, M. and Benkhart, E. (2003) IFN-alpha induces the human IL-10 gene by recruiting both IFN regulatory factor 1 and Stat3. Journal of Immunology , 171 , 285-290.